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__NOTOC__[[File:GenghisPortrait.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px200px|Taizu aka Genghis Khan]]__NOTOC__The Mongol invasions of the 13th century affected much of Eurasia, where at one point , the Mongols had conquered lands stretching from China to Eastern Europe. While these invasions have been depicted as very destructive and disruptive to trade and urban life in many regions, there were a number of several new developments that fundamentally changed the course of history for Europe and Asia. Many of these impacts are not obvious , but the influence of the Mongols' influences, in effect, can still be felt today.

===Mongol Conquests=Who did the Mongols Conquer? ==The Mongol conquests initiated by Genghis Khan, who united the often warring Mongol and Turkic tribes, in 1206 and continuing through his successors until the end of the 13th century launched a period of unprecedented destruction and transformation for Eurasia. At surface value, the destruction during the 13th century when these conquests took place was immense. Some have estimated that the Mongol invasions killed more people than any other war if one adjusted for global population levels, where up . Up to 5% of the planet may have been killed during the invasions. Additionally, the invasions have been suggested as helping to begin the spread of the Black Death plague, as population tactics and movements of population may have helped the bacteria to spread more easily spread.  Many of the great cities in East Asia, Central Asia, and West Asia were either destroyed or lost much of their cultural property. Cities were as diverse as KievKyiv, Nishapur, Samarkand, and Baghdad were heavily damaged or destroyed. In some countries, it It is estimated that nearly half or more of the population died in the invasions and aftermath, where in some countries. In some regions , the populations did not fully recover until the 20th century.<ref>For more on the conquests by the Mongols, see: Saunders, J. J. (2001). <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0812217667/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0812217667&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=a2218224825a7bf4fd3130e88ffef546 The history History of the Mongol conquestsConquests].</i> Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.</ref> == Why were the Mongols able to defeat stronger enemies? ==

While the Mongol strategy appeared cruel, it was also intended to avoid major setbacks due to their relatively small numbers. The Mongols' major advantage the Mongols had was their ability to rapidly deploy deploying and attack attacking before their enemies had time to organize. The Mongols were often greatly outnumbered, but through divide and conquer tactics, deception, and superior tactical management, they were able to defeat overcame enemies that looked far stronger on paper. Additionally, to avoid revolts and other problems in areas they had already conquered, the Mongol strategy also included reducing these areas to the point where they could not be a threat again. This was not a universal policy, as Mongols did offer cities a chance to surrender and if . If they refused , then their penalty was often harsh in the near total destruction of the population. <ref>For more on Mongol war tactics, see: May, T. M. (2007). <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1594160465/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1594160465&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=2569b7ef3ae7584d75146e9b82e2dbe1 The Mongol art Art of warWar: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol military systemMilitary System].</i> Yardley, Penn: Westholme.</ref> While the Mongols' conquest peaked in the 13th century, they did continue to invade and attack various regions long after this time. In the 14th-15th centuries, China and Iran continued to be under Mongol control, while the Mughal state in India lasted into the 19th century and was influenced by the earlier Mongol invasions. Many of the key trade cities along the Silk Road and regions in China initially declined due to the invasions. Still, the situation soon changed as much of Eurasia remained pacified for much of the 13th-14th centuries, leading to regained prosperity along with parts of the Silk Road.<ref>For more on the political effects of the Mongols, see: Reid, S. (1994). <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0921921284/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0921921284&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f8041ab54162c6f99e9ee1b327d05123 Cultures and Civilizations: The Silk and Spice Routes].</i> London: Belitha Press : UNESCO Pub.</ref>{{Mediawiki:TabletAd1}}== What was the Impact of the Mongol Invasions? ==[[File:Marco Polo - costume tartare.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Figure 2. Marco Polo dressed in Tatar clothing, often used by Mongols.]]The Mongol invasions did cause a prolonged peaceful period called the <i>Pax Mongolica</i>. While many of the great states contended with rivalries and their own regional conquests before the Mongols, this also limited some contacts between them. The Mongol dominion now opened up new connections that were easier to traverse as regions between Eastern Europe to China were largely pacified. The Mongols also acquired new technical knowledge, such as Chinese engineers and taxes, to expand their empire. This enabled them to create a more stable empire that then began to govern and see the benefit of developing cities for the Mongol rulers' benefit through increased revenue. Ultimately, the conquests led to a relative political calm in much of Eurasia that came after the initial conquests.<ref>For more on the "Pax Mongolica," see: Parker, C. H., & Bentley, J. H. (Eds.). (, 2007). <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0742553108/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0742553108&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=4a7c372accf0a93b89e5a926986d65c3 Between the Middle Ages and Modernity: Individual and Community in the Early Modern World]</i>. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, pg. 94.</ref> In Europe, and preceding the Age of Discovery that led to the founding of the New World, explorers such as Marco Polo could more easily go on the Silk Road and travel across Eurasia with minimal hindrance and banditry (Figure 2). Knowledge now also began to move across China more freely and Europe, leading to mathematics, medicine, printing, and astronomy to be brought to Europe. New forms of banking and insurance practices, first done in Eurasia, now also spread to Europe and helped lead to important banking and insurance families in Italy and beyond.  In effect, the knowledge and information transfer that became easier did help lead to what would become the Renaissance in Europe, where it was first started by Italians who were most closely associated with trade activities in the Silk Road and contacts with Eurasia.<ref>For more on the role of trade and contacts between Europe, the Middle East, China, and India during the late Medieval period, see: Hebron, L., & Stack, J. F. (2008). <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1442258217/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1442258217&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=1c14c564354c6045651da570739aa3e7 Globalization: Debunking the Myths].</i> Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Prentice Hall, pg. 2.</ref>

While the conquest of the Mongols peaked in the 13th century, they did continue to invade and attack various regions long after this time. In the 14th-15th centuries, China and Iran continued to be under Mongol control, while the Mughal state in India lasted into the 19th century and was influenced by the earlier Mongol invasions. Many of the key trade cities along the Silk Road and regions in China did initially decline due to the invasions but the situation soon changed as much of Eurasia remained pacified for much of the 13th<dh-14th centuries, leading to regained prosperity along parts of the Silk Road.<ref>For more on the political effects of the Mongols, see: Reid, S. (1994). <i>The silk and spice routes. Cultures and civilizations.</i> London: Belitha Press : UNESCO Pub.<ad/ref>

===Impact of Invasions===[[File:Marco Polo - costume tartareProducts such as pepper, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, and other spices were now introduced to Europe at much greater rates.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Figure 2Prices for products dropped as fewer authorities competed for taxes collected along the Silk Road. Marco Polo dressed in Tatar clothingAdditionally, with increased trade activity once again becoming common, often used by Mongolsand new knowledge spread to Europe. It developed within.]]The Mongol invasions did cause There was a prolonged peaceful period called greater impetus to now circumvent the revitalized Silk Road in the <i>Pax Mongolica</i>15th century. While in Traders saw the period prior potential to benefit more if parts of the Mongolstrade network were avoided, many of the great states contended with rivalries and their own regional conquests, this also limited some contacts between them. The Mongol dominion now opened up new connections that were easier if distance and travel time could be cut to traverse as the major producing regions between Eastern Europe to of India and China were largely pacifiedcould be reached. The Mongols also acquired new technical knowledge, such as Chinese engineers,  Improved navigation and taxes as they expanded their empire. This enabled them to create a shipbuilding now meant ships could traverse more stable empire that then began to govern distance and see along open oceans. In effect, the benefit of developing cities motive for later sea explorers, including Christopher Columbus, was to reach the benefit east's riches, including India, as diminished prices and potential profits along Silk Road destinations proved to be very tempting. The discovery of the Mongol rulers through increased revenue. UltimatelyNew World was, in some ways, then influenced by the Mongol conquests since it reengaged Europe in trade with the East and led to a relative political calm in much of Eurasia that came after explorers wanting to find new routes to circumvent intermediaries along the way to the initial conquestsmajor destinations and eventual markets.<ref>For more on the <i>Pax Mongolica</i>products and long-term impact on Europe based on increased interactions with the Silk Road, see: ParkerArnold, CD. (2002). <i>[https://www. Hamazon., com/gp/product/0415279968/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0415279968&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20& BentleylinkId=e5e4e6e021af4923a450a96d4ba3dc70 The Age of Discovery, J. H. 1400-1600] </i> (Eds2nd ed).)London ; New York: Routledge, pg. (2007)6. Between </ref> ==How did Invasions Affect the Middle Ages Long-Term Demographics and modernity: individual Global Power?==Over time, much of the Mongols' influence has become more of a background to other historical developments. Important trades shifted away from the Silk Road, and community the New World gained a greater significance in the early modern worldglobal economy. Lanham: Rowman & LittlefieldHowever, pgone area that the Mongol invasions have continued to affect is demographics. 94Central Asia has experienced some of the greatest changes, where the decline of Indo-Aryan or Indo-European languages, such as those based on Persian, reflect a shift more to Turkic type languages.</ref>

In Europe, and preceding the Age This also likely reflects a greater presence of Discovery Turkic populations as they increasingly moved across Central Asia during conquests that led to saw major cities and populations removed. Such migrations had begun in the founding of the New World11th century but increased further. Many regions remained relatively depopulated for centuries, explorers such as Marco Polo were now able to more easily go on the Silk Road and travel across Eurasia with minimal hindrance and banditry (Figure 2). Knowledge now also began to more freely move across China Iran and EuropeIraq, leading to methods in mathematics, medicine, printingwhere those regions had once supported far larger populations, and astronomy to be brought to Europe. New forms those levels of banking and insurance practices, first done in Eurasia, now also spread to Europe and helped lead to populations did not fully recover until perhaps the founding of important banking and insurance families in Italy and beyond20th century. In effect, the knowledge and information transfer that This also meant these regions became easier did help lead to what would become the Renaissance less significant in Europeglobal affairs, where it was first started by Italians who were most closely associated with trade activities as new powers arose to replace them in the Silk Road and contacts with Eurasia.<ref>For more on the role of trade and contacts between Europe, the Middle Near East, China, and India during the late Medieval period, see: Hebron, L., & Stack, J. F. (2008). <i>Globalization: debunking the myths.</i> Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Prentice Hall, pg. 2surrounding regions.</ref>

Products such as pepper, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg==How did the Mongols Change China?==In general, Central Asia and other spices now were introduced to Europe at much greater rates. Prices for products dropped as fewer authorities competed for taxes collected along the Silk RoadMiddle East became more depopulated. Additionally, with increased As they also lost their ability to control trade activity once again becoming common, and new knowledge spread to Europe, as well as developed within, there was a greater impetus routes after navigation improved to now circumvent the revitalized Silk Road in routes, this created new opportunities for populations from the 15th century. Traders saw the potential to benefit more if eastern parts of the trade network were avoided and if distance and travel time could be cut Central Asia to the major product increasingly move into other regions of India Central Asia and China could be reachedthe Middle East. Improved navigation and ship building now meant ships were better able Eventually, this led to traverse more distance influence and along open oceans. In effect, the motive for later sea explorersrise of Turkic based dynasties, including Christopher Columbus, was to reach which had begun already before the riches of the eastMongols, including India, as diminished prices and potential profits along Silk Road destinations proved to be very tempting. The discovery of the New World was, in some ways, then influenced by the Mongol conquests since it reengaged Europe Ottoman Empire in trade with the East and led to explorers wanting to find new routes to circumvent middlemen along the way to the major destinations and eventual marketsTurkey.<ref>For more on the products demographic and long-term impact on Europe based on increased interactions with political changes due to the Silk RoadMongols, see: ArnoldHarris, DP. M. G. (20022001). <i>The Age History of Discovery, 1400-1600 Human Populations.</i> (2nd ed). London ; New YorkWestport, Conn: Routledge, pg. 6Praeger.</ref>

===How Invasions Affected Long-Term Demographics and Global Power===Over timeIn China, much of the influence of the Mongols has become more of a background impacts did also lead to other historical new political developments. Important trades shifted away The Yuan dynasty became a successor Chinese state from the Silk Road, and the New World gained a greater significance in the global economyMongol khanate. However, one area that in China, the Mongol invasions invasion may not have continued been as destructive to affect is in demographics. Central Asia has experienced some of the greatest changespopulation, where the decline of Indo-Aryan or Indo-European languages, such as those based for Persian, reflect a shift more they seemed to Turkic type languages. This also likely reflects greater presence of Turkic populations as they increasingly moved across Central Asia during recover by the period of conquests that saw major cities 14th and populations removed. Such migrations had begun in the 11th century but increased further15th centuries. Many regions remained relatively depopulated for centuries, such as Iran and IraqNevertheless, where those regions had once supported far larger populations and those levels of populations did not fully recover until perhaps China's experience with the 20th century. This also meant these regions became less significant in global affairs, as new powers arose Mongol invasions may have contributed to replace them its isolationist policies that started in the Near East and surrounding regionslate 15th century.

In generalThe outside began to look like an uncivilized place, Central Asia and where the Middle East became more depopulated. As they also lost their ability to control trade routes after navigation improved to circumvent Mongol destruction was still relatively fresh on the Silk Road routesmind of Chinese rulers, this created new opportunities for populations leading to a greater focus away from the eastern parts rest of Central Asia to increasingly move into other regions of Central Asia and the Middle Eastworld. This had long-term consequences for China. Eventually, this It led to more influence its economic and rise eventually political decline in the latter half of Turkic based dynasties, which had begun already before the Mongols, 2nd millennium andleading up to the early 20th century. In effect, eventually, one of the Ottoman Empire in Turkeygreat global powers began to become insular. <ref>For more on demographic and political changes due to the impact of the Mongolson China, see: HarrisLanglois, PJ. MD. (Ed. G). (2001, 1981). <i>The history of human populations[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0691101108/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0691101108&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=8934fcf4610d9efa9b62653d7cf5b7eb China Under Mongol Rule].</i> WestportPrinceton, ConnN.J: PraegerPrinceton University Press.</ref>

In China, the impacts did also lead to new political developments. ==Conclusion==The Yuan dynasty became a successor Chinese state from a Mongol khanateinvasions were among the most devastating invasions in global history. However, Few recorded events in China, the invasion may history caused by human actions have not been as destructive to the population, as they seemed to recover by and wars may not have reached a comparable scale until the 14th 19th and 15th 20th centuries. NeverthelessHowever, the experience of China with the Mongol there were greater impacts based on invasions may have contributed to its isolationist policies that started in the late 15th century. The outside began to look like an uncivilized place, where the Mongol destruction was still relatively fresh on the mind of Chinese rulers, leading to a greater focus away Mainly it also created opportunities for some regions while others saw their fortunes fall. Perhaps Europe benefited from the rest of the world. This had long-term consequences for China, invasions as it led to its economic and eventually political decline helped lower prices in the later half of the 2nd millennium and leading up to the early 20th century. In effect, one of the great global powers trade goods that now began to become insular.<ref>For flow more on the impact of the Mongols on China, see: Langlois, Jgreatly. D. (Ed.). (1981). <i>China under Mongol rule.</i> PrincetonThe new knowledge also flowed to Europe that helped to combine with shifting attitudes, N.J: Princeton University Presswhich eventually launched the Renaissance.</ref>

===Conclusion===The Mongol invasions were among the most devastating invasions in global history. Few recorded events in history caused by human actions have been as destructive and wars may have not reached a comparable scale until the 19th and 20th centuries. However, there were greater impacts based on the invasions, mainly it also created opportunities for some regions while others saw their fortunes fall. Perhaps Europe benefited from the invasions as it helped to lower prices in trade goods that now began to flow more greatly. New knowledge also flowed to Europe that helped to combine with shifting attitudes, which eventually launched the Renaissance. Other regions, particularly in the Middle East, declined in political and economic power, as depopulation had major consequences. Policies in China, in In part, China's policies also adjusted based on experiences with the Mongols, that which then led to new rulers in China to become, becoming more isolationist over time, more isolationist. Demographic changes occurred as new migrations became possible that have now subsequently affected today's populations in the Middle East and Central Asia in particular. Many of More Turkish based influences have subsequently replaced many Indo-Arayan languages across Central Asia have subsequently been replaced by more Turkish based influences.

[[Category:Renaissance Chinese History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:Italian History]] [[Category:Medical Middle East History]][[Category:Asian History]]{{Contributors}}Updated December 7, 2020