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The Mongol invasions of the 13th century affected much of Eurasia, where at one point the Mongols had conquered lands stretching from China to Eastern Europe. While these invasions have been depicted as very destructive and disruptive to trade and urban life in many regions, there were a number of new developments that fundamentally changed the course of history for Europe and Asia. Many of these impacts are not obvious but the influence of the Mongols, in effect, can still be felt today.

The Mongol conquests initiated by Genghis Khan, who united the often warring Mongol and Turkic tribes, in 1206 and continuing through his successors until the end of 13th century launched a period of unprecedented destruction and transformation for Eurasia. At surface value, the destruction during the 13th century when these conquests took place was immense. Some have estimated that the Mongol invasions killed more people than any other war if one adjusted for global population levels, where up to 5% of the planet may have been killed during the invasions. Additionally, the invasions have been suggested as helping to begin the spread of the Black Death plague, as tactics and movements of population may have helped the bacteria to more easily spread. Many of the great cities in East Asia, Central Asia, and West Asia were either destroyed or lost much of their cultural property. Cities as diverse as Kiev, Nishapur, Samarkand, and Baghdad were heavily damaged or destroyed. In some countries, it is estimated that nearly half or more of the population died in the invasions and aftermath, where in some regions the populations did not fully recover until the 20th century.<ref>For more on the conquests by the Mongols, see: Saunders, J. J. (2001). <i>The history of the Mongol conquests.</i> Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.</ref>

While the Mongol strategy appeared cruel, it was also intended to avoid major setbacks due to their relatively small numbers. The major advantage the Mongols had was their ability to rapidly deploy and attack before their enemies had time to organize. The Mongols were often greatly outnumbered, but through divide and conquer tactics, deception, and superior tactical management, they were able to defeat enemies that looked far stronger on paper. Additionally, to avoid revolts and other problems in areas they had already conquered, the Mongol strategy also included reducing these areas to the point where they could not be a threat again. This was not a universal policy, as Mongols did offer cities a chance to surrender and if they refused then their penalty was often harsh in the near total destruction of the population. <ref>For more on Mongol war tactics, see: May, T. M. (2007). <i>The Mongol art of war: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol military system.</i> Yardley, Penn: Westholme.</ref>

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The Mongol invasions did cause a prolonged peaceful period called the <i>Pax Mongolica</i>. While in the period prior to the Mongols, many of the great states contended with rivalries and their own regional conquests, this also limited some contacts between them. The Mongol dominion now opened up new connections that were easier to traverse as regions between Eastern Europe to China were largely pacified. The Mongols also acquired new technical knowledge, such as Chinese engineers, and taxes as they expanded their empire. This enabled them to create a more stable empire that then began to govern and see the benefit of developing cities for the benefit of the Mongol rulers through increased revenue. Ultimately, the conquests led to a relative political calm in much of Eurasia that came after the initial conquests.<ref>For more on the <i>Pax Mongolica</i>, see: Parker, C. H., & Bentley, J. H. (Eds.). (2007). Between the Middle Ages and modernity: individual and community in the early modern world. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, pg. 94.</ref>

Products such as pepper, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, and other spices now were introduced to Europe at much greater rates. Prices for products dropped as fewer authorities competed for taxes collected along the Silk Road. Additionally, with increased trade activity once again becoming common, and new knowledge spread to Europe, as well as developed within, there was a greater impetus to now circumvent the revitalized Silk Road in the 15th century. Traders saw the potential to benefit more if parts of the trade network were avoided and if distance and travel time could be cut to the major product regions of India and China could be reached. Improved navigation and ship building now meant ships were better able to traverse more distance and along open oceans. In effect, the motive for later sea explorers, including Christopher Columbus, was to reach the riches of the east, including India, as diminished prices and potential profits along Silk Road destinations proved to be very tempting. The discovery of the New World was, in some ways, then influenced by the Mongol conquests since it reengaged Europe in trade with the East and led to explorers wanting to find new routes to circumvent middlemen along the way to the major destinations and eventual markets.<ref>For more on the products and long-term impact on Europe based on increased interactions with the Silk Road, see: Arnold, D. (2002). <i>The Age of Discovery, 1400-1600 </i> (2nd ed). London ; New York: Routledge, pg. 6.</ref>

In China, the impacts did also lead to new political developments. The Yuan dynasty became a successor Chinese state from a Mongol khanate. However, in China, the invasion may have not been as destructive to the population, as they seemed to recover by the 14th and 15th centuries. Nevertheless, the experience of China with the Mongol invasions may have contributed to its isolationist policies that started in the late 15th century. The outside began to look like an uncivilized place, where the Mongol destruction was still relatively fresh on the mind of Chinese rulers, leading to a greater focus away from the rest of the world. This had long-term consequences for China, as it led to its economic and eventually political decline in the later half of the 2nd millennium and leading up to the early 20th century. In effect, one of the great global powers began to become insular.<ref>For more on the impact of the Mongols on China, see: Langlois, J. D. (Ed.). (1981). <i>China under Mongol rule.</i> Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.</ref>

The Mongol invasions were among the most devastating invasions in global history. Few recorded events in history caused by human actions have been as destructive and wars may have not reached a comparable scale until the 19th and 20th centuries. However, there were greater impacts based on the invasions, mainly it also created opportunities for some regions while others saw their fortunes fall. Perhaps Europe benefited from the invasions as it helped to lower prices in trade goods that now began to flow more greatly. New knowledge also flowed to Europe that helped to combine with shifting attitudes, which eventually launched the Renaissance. Other regions, particularly in the Middle East, declined in political and economic power, as depopulation had major consequences. Policies in China, in part, also adjusted based on experiences with the Mongols, that then led to new rulers in China to become, over time, more isolationist. Demographic changes occurred as new migrations became possible that have now subsequently affected today's populations in the Middle East and Central Asia in particular. Many of Indo-Arayan languages across Central Asia have subsequently been replaced by more Turkish based influences.