Changes

The exchange of ideas and trade brought about an era of unprecedented prosperity and knowledge that advanced the ancient world's sciences. It led to many discoveries that would not be replicated until the Renaissance in the 15 or 16th century AD. What is remarkable is he achieved all of this by the age of 32 at the time of his death in Babylon. However, the root of all the social change that would eventually influence Europe, the Near East, Egypt, and much of Asia rested in his ability to conquer many territories and do it quickly. The question is, how did he do this?

[[File:Alexandermosaic.jpg|thumbnail|left|275px|Figure 1. A mosaic showing Alexander attacking Darius III and his centerline at the battle of Issus.]]

Alexander took power after the death of his father, Philip II of Macedon, who had already planned to invade the Persian, Achaemenid Empire.<ref>For more on Alexander's father and his plans of conquests, see: Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly, and Daniel Ogden, eds. 2010. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199738157/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0199738157&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=40e1c4808c9befad6d185d849b70849b Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives]. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> His first battles were Greece and the Balkans, where he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts.

Shortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30,000-50,000 troops, Alexander quickly won his first major battle at Granicus.<ref>For more on this battle, see: Matthews, Rupert. 2008. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1862274487/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1862274487&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=5cd69acbd10c5367b89300d97a9862e7 Alexander the Great at the Battle of Granicus]</i>. Stroud: Spellmount.</ref> This victory allowed him to take the western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges and taking Sardis, one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, he proceeded toward Syria. He encountered the Persian King Darius III in 333 at Issus's battle.<ref> For more on the battle of Issus, see Delbrück, Hans. 1975. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0803265867/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0803265867&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f94cfc51938674926b5abff31bc432d5 History of the Art of War]</i>. Lincoln, Neb: University of Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 191. </ref> This is the first major battle he had with the Persian king, and once again, Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Persian army through his cavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's centerline, where this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman-era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1).

After the battle of Issus, Alexander took the Levant and the coastal Mediterranean cities, which were important trading cities and allowed the Achaemenids to derive much of their wealth, establish their navy, and proceed into Egypt. In Syria and the Levant, his only major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza in 332 BC.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Levant and Syria, see: Freeman, Philip. 2011. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1416592814/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1416592814&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f5c583c6ae9445145f4140977f336b3f Alexander the Great]</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster, pg. 26. </ref> In Egypt, he was quickly accepted by the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before Alexander and, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadership.

Here, he became considered Amun's son, the chief of the Egyptian pantheon, further exalting him in his new subjects' eyes. Alexander also began the process of founding cities, the most famous of which was Alexandria. Its position along the Mediterranean reflects a key change, where Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated into culture and trade in the centuries to come.<ref> For more on Alexander's time in Egypt, Bowman, Alan K. 1996. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520205316/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520205316&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b3b436dd2cc5146e4b70f06b8ab1d48b Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642] ; from Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2. paperback printing. Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of California Press, pg. 22</ref> That was Alexander's intention from the outset, showing that he likely had long-term, strategic thinking about the nature and future of his conquered lands long after his own time.

[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|left|thumbnail|Figure 2. The extent of Alexander's empire after his wars with the Persians, in Central Asia, and India.]]

The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander at Gaugamela's battle near modern-day Erbil. Once again, Alexander's tactics proved decisive where his forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' center, causing the king to flee the battle likely. With this battle secure, all of Mesopotamia fell to Alexander, and Alexander entered Babylon's great city without any need for combat. At Babylon, Alexander perhaps decided he would make the city the new capital of his now vast empire, as it would unite the Greek and Near Eastern worlds more closely. Alexander then went on to take Susa, the old capital of the Persians, and then the ceremonial capital of Persepolis, which was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander's troops.

Only one more major battle was fought against the Persians at the Persian Gates battle, a strategic crossing.<ref>For More on the Battles of Gaugamela and Alexander's later battles against the Persians, see: Wilcken, Ulrich, and Eugene N. Borza. 1967. Alexander the Great. Norton Library. New York: Norton, pg. 60. </ref> After this, Darius III was killed by one of his generals, and Achaemenid factions continued to lead a guerilla-style war against Alexander. However, they squabbled between themselves over the remains of their empire.

This division allowed Alexander to reach Central Asia with only minor resistance easily. He founded many cities along the way that gained importance during the rise of the Silk Road. This included the city of Kandahar in Afghanistan and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near the edge of Tibet. His wars continued in Central Asia and India, where he initially encountered major resistance.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: Roy, Kaushik. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/8178241099/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=8178241099&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=912065039072f879b4b3dfdca7da078a India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil]</i>. Delhi : Bangalore: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longman, pg. 29</ref>

Alexander's battles were the first where European armies had encountered war elephants, which likely caused great fear in his army before eventually overcoming them in battle. Nevertheless, the difficulty of long campaigning and undoubtedly losing many men led to his men tiring of conflict and eventually forcing Alexander to pull his forces back, finally reaching once again Babylon. By the time Alexander finished campaigning, he had created the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2).

Alexander's success lay in his military genius, knowing how to use his cavalry and troops precisely at key moments in battle. It seemed he was close to defeat several times but could use the situation to his advantage by luring his enemies into a deeper trap. Furthermore, his troops were well trained in holding their positions and not panicking in battle.<ref> For more on the battle tactics of Alexander, see Bose, Partha Sarathi. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01FJ16XNM/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B01FJ16XNM&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=641707a6856af1049e12d1340ff7334f Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy: Lessons from the Great Empire Builder]</i>. London: Profile.</ref> However, a lot of the success had little to do with Alexander but the Achaemenid Empire's nature.

The Achaemenids were perhaps the most successful empire up to that point. They had succeeded in uniting a vast territory and genuinely integrating it into a cohesive realm that traded extensively and had well-maintained roads. The Achaemenid state was prosperous, and people had by then began to move and live in areas far from their homelands. The world, in essence, had become smaller thanks to many of their tolerant policies.

While it is true that Egypt and some other regions had revolted against them, many had benefited from the Achaemenids. Therefore, it is no wonder that Alexander marries Persian royalty and eventually takes on the regalia of the Achaemenid kings. This is also why he had planned for Babylon to be his new capital. It was one of the chief cities and capitals of the Achaemenid Empire despite being in Mesopotamia. Commerce had now become the glue that bound many regions, and Alexander understood this. This probably led to his men resenting Alexander's penchant for the Achaemenids, as the Greeks still held beliefs that the Persians were not on the same level as them.

</div>

<references/>

[[Category:Near East History]][[Category:Ancient Greek History]]

[[Category: Hellenistic Period]][[Category:Alexander the Great]]

{{Contributors}}