Changes

However, a series of military Emperors managed to save the state and allowed it to continue to exist in the west for almost two hundred years and in the east for another thousand years. The origins of the Third Century Crisis is complex. It will be argued that the crisis was a result of, a breakdown in army discipline, barbarian invasions, the rise of the Sassanian Empire, and natural disasters.

In 200 AD, the Roman Empire was at its greatest extent since the Trajan's reign of Trajan , and a strong Emperor, Septimius Severus , governed it. The Empire seemed invincible, and it had overawed the German and Iranian tribes on its Rhine and Danuban frontiers.<ref>Hekster, Oliver. Rome and its Empire, AD 193–284 (Edinburgh 2008), p 119</ref> The Parthian Empire, once Rome’s most formidable enemy in the east , was no longer a serious threat. The local elites in the Empire had become Romanized and were very loyal to Rome.  However, beneath the surface, the state had been undermined by a series of problems. Inflation, as a result of the debasing of the currency, was causing persistent economic issues.<ref>Heckster, p 127</ref> Moreover, the plague that had ravaged Rome and its provinces in the 160s had led to a dramatic drop in the population, and this was to have long-term consequences for the Imperial territories.  After the death of Emperor Severus, his sons Geta and Caracalla ruled as co-Emperors. Caracalla murdered his brother and became sole ruler and according to Gibbon he ‘was the common enemy of mankind.’<ref>Gibbon, Edward, <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, chapter 6</ref> After Caracalla was assassinated, in 217 AD, he was succeeded by an alleged relative Elagabalus, a former priest in a sun-cult in Syria. The sources are all hostile to Elagabalus, who tried to impose his religion on Rome and be transgender.<ref>Gibbon, I, Chp 6</ref> When he was assassinated (222 AD), he was succeeded by his nephew Alexander Severus, who was a benign ruler who was prepared to cooperate with the Senate. However, he too was assassinated, and his death is widely seen as the start of the Third Century Crisis.<ref>Hekster, p 198</ref>

However, beneath == What were the surface, problems that led to the state Roman Empire's Third Century Crisis? ==Alexander Severus had been undermined assassinated because he tried to buy off German invaders and the army was repelled by a series of problemsthis and Macrinus the Praetorian Prefect became Emperor in 235 AD. Inflation The military situation on the Rhine and the Danube was dire as more and more German tribes invaded Roman provinces. In 238 AD, Macrinus was deposed in a result of coup. Five more Emperors ascended the throne before they too were assassinated, all in the debasing space of the currency was causing persistent economic issues12 months.<ref>HecksterWatson, <i>Alaric Aurelian and the Third Century</i> (Taylor & Francis, 2004), p 127134</ref> Moreover, the plague that had ravaged Rome and its provinces in the 160s had led to a dramatic drop in the population, and this was to have long-term consequences for the Imperial territories.

After the death The Empire was dominated by a series of Emperor Severusmilitary adventurers or warlords, his sons Geta and Caracalla ruled as co-Emperorswho temporarily gained the throne before being assassinated. Caracalla murdered his brother and became sole ruler There was no central government and according to Gibbon he ‘was the common enemy of mankind.’<ref>Gibbon, Edward, <i>Decline army had become fractured and Fall instead of battling the Roman Empire</i>, chapter 6</ref> After Caracalla was assassinated, many barbarians they would engage in 217 AD, he was succeeded by an alleged relative Elagabalus, a former priest in a suncountless civil wars. This greatly weakened the once-cult in Syria. The sources are all hostile to Elagabalus who it is said tried to impose his religion on Rome mighty Roman legions and who may have been placed a transsexual.<ref>Gibbon, I, Chp 6</ref> When he was assassinated (222 AD) he was succeeded by his nephew Alexander Severus, who was a benign ruler who was prepared to cooperate with considerable burden on the Senatecitizenry. However, he too was assassinated, and his death is widely seen as the start of the Third Century Crisis.<ref>Hekster, p 198</ref>

====The Third Century Crisis====Alexander Severus had been assassinated because he tried to buy off German invaders and Moreover, the Praetorian Guard, the army was repelled by this and Macrinus bodyguards of the Praetorian Prefect became Emperor in 235 AD, often assassinated their rulers, out of political expediency or sheer greed. The military For a brief period, Emperor Philip managed to stabilize the situation on the Rhine and the Danube was very serious as more and more German tribes invaded Roman provinces. In 238 AD Macrinus was deposed in However, his assassination marked a coup new and five more Emperors ascended the throne before they too were assassinated, all even darker period in the space of 12 monthscrisis.<ref>WatsonDecius succeeded Phillip, <i>Alaric Aurelian and he had to deal with a Gothic invasion. He was defeated and killed at the Third Century</i> Battle of Abrittus (Taylor & Francis, 2004251 AD), p 134</ref> The Empire . Every year there was battled over by a series of military adventurers or warlordsbarbarian invasions, who which would temporarily gain the throne before being assassinatedravage entire provinces. There was no central government and To compound the army had become fractured and instead of battling situation, the many barbarians they would engage Parthians in countless civil wars. This greatly weakened the once mighty Roman legions and placed a considerable burden on east were replaced by the citizenrySassanian Empire. They were to prove to be even more formidable enemies of Rome.

Moreover, the Praetorian Guard the bodyguards of the Emperor often assassinate their master, out of political expediency or sheer greed. For a brief period, Emperor Philip managed to stabilize the situation. However, his assassination marked a new and even darker period in the crisis. Decius succeeded Phillip and he had to deal with a Gothic invasion. He was defeated and killed at the Battle of Abrittus (251 AD). Every year there was a series of barbarian invasions, which would ravage entire provinces. To compound the situation the Parthians in the east were replaced by the Sassanian Empire. They were to prove to be even more formidable enemies of Rome. The Sassanian monarch defeated several Roman armies and even captured Emperor Valerian and his entire army. The apparent failure of the Roman government and army to defend the provinces lead to growing separatism in the provinces , and this led to the fragmentation of the Empire.  By 268, the empire had split into rival states. Much of western Europe was part of the Gallic Empire. In the east, the great city of Palmyra under Odaenathus had driven back the Persians and created the so-called Palmyrene Empire, which was later ruled by the legendary Queen Zenobia.<ref>Pat Southern. Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen (London, Continuum, 2008), p. 133 </ref>

Furthermore, parts of Dacia and the Rhine provinces were occupied by German tribes. No part of the Empire was safe from raiders , and Gothic pirates besieged even Athens was besieged by Gothic pirates. During the many wars and invasions, pan-Mediterranean trade was severely curtailed. Hyper-inflation became the norm. Agriculture was disrupted, and food shortages were common and another eruption of the plague devasted many urban centers. However, the Empire managed to pull itself back from the abyss under a series of military Emperors. The Roman army remained very formidable , and under several Illyrian Emperors, the order was restored in the provinces, and the frontiers secured.

The recovery began when Claudius II defeated a Gothic invasion and after . After he died of the plague , he was succeeded by his Master of Cavalry, Aurelian in 275 AD. He was a brilliant commander and he defeated several barbarian invasions. He then went on to defeat the Gallic and Palmyrene Empire. However, instability continued after his assassination , and it was only with the Diocletian's accession of Diocletian, that the crisis was finally ended. However, it is widely held that the Third Century Crisis permanently weakened the Empire and it . It ushered in trends that many see as marking the beginning of the end of the world of Antiquity and marking the transition to the Medieval world.<ref> Brown, P, The World of Late Antiquity (W Norton, London, 1971), p. 22 </ref>

====Which Barbarian Invasions==weakened Rome? ==In the reign of Alexander Severus, there was a sudden rise in the number of raids by German and other barbarians. These raids were a part of life for Rome’s frontier population , but by the 230s, they became more intense and frequent.<ref> Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (London, Routledge, 2015), p 356</ref> German tribes became better organized and formed into confederations such as the Franks.

Second, the barbarians were often desperate. Climate change and rising sea levels had impacted on their food supply , and they were forced to raid deeper and deeper into Imperial Roman territories. They needed to secure resources and seize arable lands to stay alive. The continuous barbarian invasion thus weakened the Empire, and this encouraged further raiding by tribal confederations beyond the Rhine and Danube.

====The How did the Rise of Sassanian Persia==threaten Rome? ==

As soon as the Sassanians took power, they began raiding Roman Syria and Asia Minor under the capable and ruthless Shapur I. The emergence of a new force in the east was a grave challenge for the legions. The constant battles with the Germans in Europe and Persians in the Near East had overstretched the Roman Army. In consequence, the legions could not defend the frontiers. This, in turn, led to the rise of local warlords and ultimately the rise of the Palmyrene Empire, which for a time ruled almost all of the near Near East and even Egypt. The foundation of the Sassanian Empire, under Under a series of able rulers, the foundation of the Sassanian Empire was one of the most significant factors in the Third Century Crisis. == What role did pandemics and climate change in the 3rd Century Crisis? ==The inability of the Romans to defend their borders was related to socio-economic factors. A pandemic had decimated the Imperial territories in the 250s and 260s, leading to population decline. The plague, according to Gibbon, ‘five thousand persons died daily in Rome, and many towns that had escaped the hands of the barbarians were entirely depopulated.’<ref>Gibbon, I, chapter 8</ref> This had serious repercussions as the army found it harder to recruit legionnaires. The tax base was much reduced, which led to serious economic dislocation.

====Natural Calamities====The inability of the Romans to defend their borders was related to socio-economic factors. A pandemic had decimated the Imperial territories in the 250s and 260s and this led to population decline. The plague according to Gibbon, ‘five thousand persons died daily in Rome, and many towns, that had escaped the hands of the barbarians, were entirely depopulated.’<ref>Gibbon, I, chapter 8</ref> This had serious repercussions as the army found it harder to recruit legionnaires and the tax base was much reduced, which led to serious economic dislocation. Then as As we have seen , climate change reduced the yield of agricultural surplus and this , which led to the near -collapse of long-distance trade. Then the constant tax demands of the Emperors added to the dire situation in many provinces. All of these These compounded the difficulties facing Rome and weakened its ability to defend itself against the Persians and Germans. However, the economic and social decline of the Empire should not be overstated, as seen in its revival under the Illyrian Emperors.

====The Military Anarchy==Why did the Roman Army fall apart during the Third Century? ==The Third Century Crisis is sometimes known as the ‘Military Anarchy.’<ref>Scarre, Chris, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: the reign-by-reign record of the rulers of Imperial Rome, (London, Thames & Hudson, 1995), p 198</ref> In other words, the army was not controlled by any unified authority. The different legions sought to have their general become Emperor, because of the prestige and the monetary rewards that they would secure upon his their accession. As a result, the legions in the Balkans would fight those from the Western provinces in order to determine who should become the ruler of the Roman World.

The root cause of the civil wars and endless usurpations was the fact that Rome had not developed a formal succession process even though it was a de-facto monarchy. As a result, any general with an army could intimidate the Senate to recognize his right to become the legitimate Emperor. This led to a profoundly unstable system , and for almost fifty years , there was rarely a strong government. Because as Gibbon noted ‘the soldiery had become aware of their power’, they disregarded any authority that was not aligned with their interests.<ref> Gibbon, I, Chp. 7</ref> The result was endless civil wars that depleted the legions' ranks of the legions and meant that they could not defend the Imperial provinces. It was only when the army was brought under the Diocletian's control of Diocletian and his reformed administration that the civil wars ended, and the legions could once again protect the Empire.

====Conclusion====The Third Century Crisis was a fifty-year emergency when the Romans struggled to preserve their state and their way of life. There are a series of factors that led to the crisis. The constant invasions of barbarians , especially German tribal confederations , meant that Rome could barely defend its borders. Then the rise of the Sassanian Empire meant that the Roman legions were overstretched and constantly under pressure. The impact of the constant fighting on the economy and society was devastating and seriously undermined the ability of successive Emperors to manage the military situation. Then a A series of natural disasters, including plague and climate change, damaged the Romans ' ability to fight. The lack of a formal succession plan for Emperors led to the army becoming the power-broker and this led to interminable civil wars and revolts. The Military Anarchy was perhaps the single most significant factor in the Third Century Crisis and the near destruction of the Roman Empire.