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The Battle of Waterloo was the last attempt by Napoleon to establish himself in France and Europe after his defeat in 1814. Why was Napoleon defeated at Waterloo? It was a mixture of the stubborn British resistance, their superior cavalry, Wellington’s leadership, and, most importantly, the timely arrival of the Prussian army on the battlefield.

Napoleon has become the master of most of Europe by 1805 after his victory over the Austrians and the Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz. For several years Napoleon and France dominated Europe, and only the British continued to oppose Bonaparte’s ambitions. Napoleon decided to invade the Russian Empire to force the Tsar to join a trade embargo on Britain. The French army marched into Russian and captured Moscow, but it disintegrated in the terrible Russian winter.<ref>Palmer, R.R., [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0073106925/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0073106925&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=aaf81ee4b016b99b72d6e0bb4a744f61 A History of the Modern World], (New York: Knopf, 1956), p. 143</ref> Napoleon retreated into Europe and in the process lost the majority of his army. The French Empire was severely weakened after the Russian Invasion, and eventually, the allies (Britain, Russian, Austria, and Prussia) marched into France and deposed Napoleon, and restored the Bourbon Monarchy. Napoleon was exiled on Elba Island - Isola d'Elba - in 1814.

However, Napoleon escaped from Elba in 1815 and returned to France. His return prompted many in France to declare their loyalty to their old Emperor. The recently installed new French King fled, and once more, Napoleon has controlled France. The allies were stunned and began to mobilize their armies to crush the French once and for all. The Russian army advanced from the east, and the Austrians began to gather their forces in Italy.<ref> Palmer, p. 156</ref> The British assembled a large force in the Low Countries, and the Prussian army advanced through Germany and planned to link up with their British allies. Napoleon was effectively surrounded, but he soon had taken control of his old army, which was still a formidable force.<ref>Palmer, p. 157</ref>

[[File: Waterloo 3.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|French Cavalry in action at Waterloo]]

Napoleon was declared an outlaw by the allies, and they decided not to negotiate with him. They were focused on defeating him so that he could never threaten the peace of Europe. Napoleon decided to target the British in the Low Countries. He wanted to secure a quick and rapid victory.<ref> Adkin, Mark, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0811718549/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0811718549&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=69ebff713071f7b1b7139c25d1dbe244 The Waterloo Companion]</i>, (Aurum, London, 2001), p. 6 </ref>

The French advance's speed stunned the British, and Wellington was forced to adopt a defensive posture south of Brussels at Waterloo.<ref> Adkins, p. 67</ref> By this time, the advanced Prussian units had arrived in Belgium, but the French surprised and defeated them at the Battle of Ligny. Wellington decided to retreat towards Waterloo and wait for the main Prussian army under General Blucher to reinforce him. Once again, Napoleon’s speed caught everyone by surprise, and before the Prussians could meet up with Wellington, he had arrived at Waterloo and was determined to force the British into a decisive battle.

[[File: Waterloo 4.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Napoleon addressing the troops before an attack]]

As ever, Napoleon was in a hurry and decided to attack the British and their allies before the Prussians arrived. He chose to attack the British the day after arriving at Waterloo. He scheduled the attack to begin in the early morning of the 18th of June, but he delayed it because of the saturated ground. The wet conditions meant that the cavalry could not conduct any charges. At 11 in the morning, Napoleon ordered his forces to attack the village of Mont-Saint-Jean as he believed that here was the main concentration of Wellington’s army.

The British were stationed below the village on some high ground. When the French saw the position of the British, they commenced bombarding their lines.<ref> Barbero, p. 114</ref> After an hour, the French began their assault, and their goal was to seize the Hougoumont farmhouse. There was fierce fighting at this farmhouse all day, but the British managed to hold out. Wellington was obliged to divert some of his reserves into this battle. This weakened his center, and Napoleon decided to launch a massive attack on the British lines. After another bombardment, the French charged up the slopes to the British lines, and after an hour of fierce fighting, they had forced Wellington’s lines back. It seemed that the British were on the verge of defeat.

However, despite the Imperial Guard's heroism, the allied forces under Wellington held firm. The Prussians under Blucher began to arrive in ever-higher numbers, and as they did, the French army began to disintegrate. The Old Guard, composed of veterans of many battles, fought to the last man, allowing the remaining French forces to flee the fighting. That night Blucher and Wellington met, and that is considered the end of the Battle. Waterloo was a victory for the allies, but as Wellington himself asserted afterward, it was a narrow victory.<ref> Adkin, p. 178</ref>

Waterloo cost the British army around 14,500 dead or wounded, and the Prussians under Blücher suffered some 7,200 casualties. The French army had some 25,000 to 26,000 killed or wounded. Some 6000 to 7000 French soldiers were taken prisoner, and another 15,000 men deserted. Waterloo was a decisive victory for the allies.<ref> Chandler, David, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0025236601/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0025236601&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=ad13ccb381f4beab1b23a17089c55271 The Campaigns of Napoleon]</i>, (New York: Macmillan, 1966), p. 156</ref> Napoleon’s army was no longer an organized fighting force, and the British and Prussians were about to invade France, which was practically defenseless. It was evident that the situation was hopeless, and after a failed suicide bid, Napoleon was sent to the island of St Helena, where he would die.

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The are several reasons Napoleon failed at Waterloo. A significant factor in Napoleon's defeat was Blucher's timely arrival, which was not anticipated by the French. Napoleon had not prepared for the arrival of the Prussian army.<ref>Chandler, p. 134.</ref> Wellington, in his despatches to London, made it clear how important Blucher's arrival was to the battle outcome.

Then the British cavalry was superior. Because of the constant wars, the European armies could not access good horses. The British were able to secure excellent horses from England and especially Ireland, which meant they were more effective at Waterloo. On the other hand, the French cavalry horses were not as good, which was a real disadvantage.<ref>Adkin, p. 212</ref> The charge of the British Heavy Brigade was particularly important at a most dangerous stage in the battle for the British and when they seemed on the verge of defeat. The superior horses of the British gave them an ‘important advantage on the battlefield.’<ref> Fletcher, Ian, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0811707032/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0811707032&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=be1e5cee696a739afca24453fc1f9afd Galloping at Everything: The British Cavalry in the Peninsula and at Waterloo 1808–15]</i>, (Staplehurst, Spellmount, 1999), 201</ref>

Waterloo was the end of an era, and Napoleon's defeat ushered in a period of peace in Europe. Napoleon had come close to victory, but Wellington and Blucher had been able to turn the tide of battle and inflict a decisive defeat on the French army. <ref> Drouet, p. 3</ref> The British army proved to be more capable than expected. The weather was also not in favor of the French, and the British had superior cavalry. Napoleon’s strategy was once again of the highest quality, but the timely arrival of the Prussians changed the course of the battle. It seems likely that Wellington would have been forced to retreat if the Prussians had not arrived. Their arrival led to the destruction of the French army and the Napoleonic Wars in Europe.