Changes

[[File:Hvalsey church greenland - creative comons.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Figure 1. The Hvalsey Church in Greenland represents part of a Greenland settlement by Norse that was later abandoned.]]__NOTOC__Our changing climate shows many examples where it altered and shaped history. Climate is not a deterministic process , but it does create the conditions that forces people must to adjust their lives to. This leads to societies and cultures that adapt or reflect the climatic conditions prevalent in an area. This is the case as well in In Europe, where we see changing opportunities and challenges for Medieval and Early Modern European societies as the climate changed.

====Early Medieval Europe and Climate====Soon after the fall of the Roman Empire and the emergence of early European kingdoms and societies, the climate during this time mostly appeared to be colder and wetter than conditions today. River floods were more intense during the 500-600s. Between 500-900 CE, glaciers were expanding in the Alps and other northern regions of Europe such as Scandinavia. In northern Europe, agriculture was often on the margins, where crops can be grown in what today would be a typical year during the summer months.

Soon after the fall of the Roman Empire and emergence of early European kingdoms and societies, the climate during this time mostly appeared to be colder and wetter than conditions today. Flooding in rivers seemed more intense during the 500-600s. Between 500-900 CEHowever, glaciers were expanding in the Alps and other northerly regions of Europe such as Scandinavia. In northern Europe, agriculture was often on the margins, where crops can be grown in what today would be a typical year during the summer months. However, increased persistence of cloudy weather, a large amount of rain, and generally colder conditions could lead to increased crop failures during the summer months in the earliest phases of the Medieval period. This change has led some scholars to believe at least some of the Norse and Dane movements, who which we call the Vikings, that occurred by the 8th century occurred due to these cooler conditions. It simply just became more difficult for agriculture to be successful in the northern regions of Europe, leading to increased dependence on raiding or settling new lands that were more productive. In fact, from the 8th to 9th centuries, Viking raids and eventual settlement became more intense, suggesting conditions may have become harsher leading to more bold movements. During this time, large waves of Vikings landed in Europe, including in France, Britain, and areas south of Denmark. Some Viking travelers went even further into Russia and Mediterranean regions, taking enormous risk but such risk may have been considered in light of the situation back in northern Europe.<ref>For more on the Viking and Norse movements and raids as a result of climatic events, see: Lieberman, B. D., & Gordon, E. (2018). <i>Climate change in human history: prehistory to the present</i>. London ; New York: Bloomsbury Academic, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.</ref>

While cooler In fact, from the 8th to 9th centuries, Viking raids and the eventual settlement became more intense, suggesting conditions may have forced some migrations become harsher leading to occur more bold movements. During this time, large waves of Vikings landed in Europe, including in the early Medieval period that forever shaped the history of regions such as Britain and France, at around 950-1250 CEBritain, climate began to take a warmer turnand areas south of Denmark. This period is known for population increases. Cities Some Viking travelers went even further into Russia and trade began to flourish at a greater rate Mediterranean regions, taking the enormous risk but such risk may have been considered in this period. Wine was even made light of the situation back in northern Europe. For the first time since the Roman period, population in cities began to thrive.<ref>For more on cities in Europe in the early Medieval period Viking and how they began to thrive againNorse movements and raids as a result of climatic events, see: ScottLieberman, B. D., & Gordon, TE. (20122018). <i>The city-state Climate change in Europe, 1000-1600human history: hinterland, territory, regionprehistory to the present</i>. Oxford London ; New York: Oxford University PressBloomsbury Academic, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.</ref>

Areas previously not inhabited significantly, While cooler conditions may have forced some migrations to occur in the early Medieval period that forever shaped the history of regions such as GreenlandBritain and France, now became an area for longat around 950-lived Norse colonies during what was called 1250 CE, the Medieval Warm Period. Famous Norse explorers such as Erik the Red in the late 10th century named Greenland as such because they wanted climate began to convince others that it was take a good area to settlewarmer turn. This period is known for population increases. The warming climate made the story somewhat believable Cities and enabled the Norse trade began to settle different areas of Greenland (Figure 1). Climate studies have suggested conditions may have been warmer flourish at a greater rate in this time than period. Wine was even modern conditions or perhaps conditions were similarmade in northern Europe. Erik the Red and his descendants, including Lief Leif Erikson, visited lands they called For the first time since the land of forests and land of wine, which could have been in reference to North America such as areas in Labrador and Newfoundland. The settlement of L'Anse aux MeadowsRoman period, in Newfoundland, represents the clearest evidence of Norse settlement population in North America. The Norse also cities began to trade with Native American groups such as the Beothuk and Thule. All of these long-distance travels in regions that have been frozen over in recent history suggest much warmer conditions made these travels possible or certainly easier. However, by around 1400 things seemed to have died out and settlements in Greenland and North America were abandoned by the Norse. Once again, conditions became cooler in the higher latitudesthrive.<ref>For more on cities in Europe in the early Medieval Warm Period period and the Norse explorationshow they began to thrive again, see: HopkinsScott, A., & Hopkins, AT. (20022012). <i>VikingsThe city-state in Europe, 1000-1600: the Norse discovery of America (1st ed)hinterland, territory, region</i>. Oxford ; New York: PowerKids Oxford University Press.</ref>

[[File:Hvalsey church greenland Areas previously not inhibited significantly, such as Greenland, now became an area for long- creative comonslived Norse colonies during what was called the Medieval Warm Period.jpg|thumb|Figure 1Famous Norse explorers such as Erik the Red in the late 10th century named Greenland as such because they wanted to convince others that it was a good area to settle. The Hvalsey Church in Greenland represents part warming climate made the story somewhat believable and enabled the Norse to settle different areas of a Greenland settlement by Norse that was later abandoned(Figure 1). Climate studies have suggested conditions may have been warmer at this time than even modern conditions or perhaps conditions were similar.]]

==Late Erik the Red and his descendants, including Lief Leif Erikson, visited lands they called the land of forests and land of wine, which could have been about North America such as areas in Labrador and Newfoundland. The settlement of L'Anse aux Meadows, in Newfoundland, represents the clearest evidence of Norse settlement in North America. The Norse also began to trade with Native American groups such as the Beothuk and Thule. All of these long-distance travels in regions that have been frozen over in recent history suggest much warmer conditions made these travels possible or certainly easier. However, by around 1400 things seemed to have died out and the Norse abandoned settlements in Greenland and North America. Once again, conditions became cooler in the higher latitudes.<ref>For more on the Medieval Warm Period and Early Modern Europe and Climate==the Norse explorations, see: Hopkins, A., & Hopkins, A. (2002). <i>Vikings: the Norse discovery of America (1st ed)</i>. New York: PowerKids Press.</ref>

====Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe and Climate====[[File:56-3625983-800px-pieter-bruegel-the-elder-hunters-in-the-snow-winter-google-art-project.jpg|thumb|left|Figure 2. Paintings such as the "Hunter in the Snow" became more common in the Little Ice Age.]]In the 1300s-1500s, the climate was somewhat stable, but colder conditions began to become evident. This though did mean many of the settlements became harder to continue in regions such as Greenland. Wine making Winemaking began to retreat southward to central and southern Europe. Populations did recover and expand after the Black Death of the 14th century, in part , this was helped by the favourable favorable climate conditions in the 14th century. The Black Death itself may have been triggered by climate Climate events elsewhere in Asiamay have triggered the Black Death itself. By the 16th century, it became even more decisively colder. The so-called Little Ice Age began around the 14th century and continued well until the 19th century at around 1850, resulting in about 550 years of generally colder conditions. Prolonged colder conditions began to lead to more crop failures as well as increased rates of disease. This may have contributed to some of the peasant revolts and increased activities of rebellion that gradually reduced the power of the nobility and gave greater power and freedom to the lower classes that is evident in the late Medieval Europe. Another result of this period was the association of witchcraft and weather-making. From the late 14th century and through the Little Ice Age, witchcraft became a significant accusation and increasingly used in Europe, with women in particular targeted with accusations. Witchcraft soon became associated with the power to shift the climate and the fact that rivers froze and crops failed led these accusations to become more common. Marginalized groups, such as Jewish communities, were also sometimes blamed for the turn in the climate.<ref>For more on the Little Ice Age and its effect in Europe, see: Fagan, B. M. (2002). <i>The little ice age: how climate made history 1300-1850 (1st. paperback ed. 2002)</i>. New York: BasicBooks.</ref>

There were other cultural responses. In the 16th century, artists began to increasingly use winter and winter-like scenes in their paintings. This was relatively rare before this period. The use of clouds and winter scenes appears to have peaked between 1600-1649 in paintings, which may have been among the coldest parts of this period (Figure 2). Ice skating began to become a popular sport in many regions of Europe. From 1608<dh-1814, London had a Frost Fair that included ice skating on the Thames and other winter activities. The fact that rivers froze deep enough to enable prolonged periods of ice skating had not occurred before. The fact it has also not existed since the 19th century indicates conditions have become warmer since then. In Scotland, it is likely curling began to become a popular sport during the Little Ice age, as long periods of frozen weather enabled this sport to be played for a long period of the year. By around the mid 19th century, the climate began to take a clear warming trend, resulting in temperate conditions once again returning to many parts of Europe.<ref>For more on how culture was affected by the Little Ice Age, see: Behringer, W. (2010). <i>A cultural history of climate</i>. Cambridge, UK ; Malden, MA: Polity. <ad/ref>

[[File:56-3625983-800px-pieter-bruegel-This cooling may have contributed to some of the peasant revolts and increased activities of rebellion that gradually reduced the power of the nobility and gave greater power and freedom to the-elder-hunters-lower classes that is evident inlate Medieval Europe. Another result of this period was the association between witchcraft and weather-making. From the late 14th century and through the-snow-winter-google-art-projectLittle Ice Age, witchcraft became a significant accusation and increasingly used in Europe, with women in particular targeted with accusations.jpg|thumb|Figure 2Witchcraft soon became associated with the power to shift the climate and the fact that rivers froze and crops failed led these accusations to become more common. Paintings Marginalized groups, such as Jewish communities, were also sometimes blamed for the "Hunter turn in the Snow" became climate.<ref>For more common in on the Little Ice Ageand its effect in Europe, see: Fagan, B. M. (2002). <i>The little ice age: how climate made history 1300-1850 (1st. paperback ed. 2002)</i>. New York: BasicBooks.]]</ref>

==Conflict There were other cultural responses. In the 16th century, artists began to use winter and Climate==winter-like scenes in their paintings increasingly. This was relatively rare before this period. The use of clouds and winter scenes appears to have peaked between 1600-1649 in paintings, which may have been among the coldest parts of this period (Figure 2). Ice skating began to become a popular sport in many regions of Europe. From 1608-1814, London had a Frost Fair that included ice skating on the Thames and other winter activities. The fact that rivers froze deep enough to enable prolonged periods of ice skating had not occurred before. The fact it has also not existed since the 19th century indicates conditions have become warmer since then.

Perhaps two great conflicts were affected by In Scotland, it is likely curling became a popular sport during the Little Ice Age. The first is the Thirty Years warage, arguably Europe's most devastating religious war, which lasted between 1618-1648. This was as long periods of frozen weather enabled this sport to be played for a long period of great strife and religious wars between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, France, Northern Europe, and other regions across Europe being also affected by inter-community and state-level strifethe year. This changed By around the course of European historymid 19th century, changing the religious makeup of the continent and weakening the Catholic Church climate began to take a clear warming trend, resulting in much temperate conditions once again returning to many parts of Northern Europe. It also helped lead to the rise of France as a major power. This was also was partly triggered by increasing crop failures and civil strife caused by climatic events that led to inter-community tensions that pushed the different sides into conflict.<ref>For more on how the Thirty Years War and conflict that may have been influenced culture was affected by a colder climatethe Little Ice Age, see: HelfferichBehringer, T., & Helfferich, TW. (Eds.). (20152010). <i>The essential Thirty Years War: a documentary A cultural history of climate</i>. IndianapolisCambridge, UK ; Malden, MA: Hackett Publishing Company, IncPolity. </ref>

The second ====Conflict and Climate====Perhaps two great conflict in this time was conflicts were affected by the French RevolutionLittle Ice Age. In the late 18th century, increasing crop failures led to The first is the peasants having greater difficulties paying their taxes to the wealth landlords and nobles of France. SoonThirty Years War, the population became fed up with their high taxes and poor harvests. The revolutionary cause gained greater appeal and eventually mass riots could not be curtailedarguably Europe's most devastating religious war, where eventually the Bastille was overrun and eventually Louis XIII was overthrown. A period of blood conflict followed that eventually led to the rise of Napoleonwhich lasted between 1618-1648. In large part, discontent that was created in this This period was linked with climatic events that shaped the continent in the late 18th century that led to the fall saw extraordinary amounts of the French monarchy strife and rise of the Napoleonic Age.<ref>For more on the French Revolution religious wars between Protestants and crop failures as a contributor to the eventsCatholics in Germany, France, see: JonesNorthern Europe, P. (1988). <i>The peasantry in the French Revolution</i>. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] ; New York: Cambridge University Pressand other regions across Europe were also affected by inter-community and state-level strife.</ref>

We can see that climate played an important role in shaping cultures The second great conflict in this time was the region as well as how cultures expressed themselvesFrench Revolution. From In the early Norse explorers who traveled distant regions late 18th century, increasing crop failures led to the French revolutionaries who overthrew peasants struggling to pay their monarchytaxes to the wealthy landlords and nobles of France. Soon, climate played some role affecting these eventsthe population became fed up with their high taxes and poor harvests. Climate was certainly not As the only reason revolutionary cause gained greater appeal, French authorities struggled to contain mass riots. Eventually, these events happened but it played a role riots culminated with the storming of the Bastille and Louis the XIII as a key context overthrow. A period of bloody conflict followed that eventually led to the rise of Napoleon. In large part, discontent that was created in shaping this period was linked with climatic events. Cultural change also happened that shaped the continent in the arts and even sports in part due late 18th century that led to climate, where ice skating the fall of the French monarchy and paintings were influenced by climate eventsrise of the Napoleonic Age. While this has occurred in <ref>For more on the French Revolution and crop failures as a contributor to the recent pastevents, we should perhaps expect the same see: Jones, P. (1988). <i>The peasantry in the coming ages of Europe and other Western societiesFrench Revolution</i>. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] ; New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

====Summary====We can see that climate played an important role in shaping cultures in the region as well as how cultures expressed themselves. From the early Norse explorers who traveled distant regions to the French revolutionaries who overthrew their monarchy, climate played some role affecting these events. Climate was certainly not the only reason these events happened but it played a role as a key context in shaping events. The cultural change also happened in the arts and even sports in part due to climate, where climate events influenced ice skating and paintings. While this has occurred in the recent past, we should perhaps expect the same in the coming ages of Europe and other Western societies. ====References====<references/>