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The epic series of battles between the Greeks and the Persians in the fifth century BC known as the Persian Wars, or Greco-Persian Wars (499-479 BC), in many ways solidified the Greeks’ place in world history and established many attributes of Hellenic civilization that were carried on for centuries until the collapse of the Roman Empire. The events were written about by a number of Greek and Roman historians and geographers including Herodotus, Plutarch, and Pausanias, whose often well-embellished narratives still come to life because of vivid descriptions of the many Greek heroes.  Among the most interesting of the many heroes was the Athenian general and politician Themistocles (ca. 524-459 BC), who was responsible for building Athens’ large naval fleet and for leading the Greeks to victory at Salamis, which proved to be the beginning of the end for the Persians in Greece. For his role in the victory, Themistocles was given awards and accolades and celebrated as a hero in both Athens and its rival city-state of Sparta. But after the conclusion of the Persian Wars, Themistocles’ fame soon turned to infamy. He was eventually accused of collaborating with the Persians, which led to his ostracism and eventual forced exile from not just Athens, but all of Greece. Themistocles’ life ended thousands of miles away from his beloved land and his reputation was ruined for centuries. The evidence shows, though, that Themistocles’ fall from grace was probably related to Machiavellian machinations by his opponents, which ultimately made him the victim of a real-life Greek tragedy.

The first major battles in the Persian Wars were initiated by the Achaemenid Persian King Darius I (ruled 522-486 BC), but it was his son and successor Xerxes I (reigned 486-465 BC) who was responsible for taking most of the fight to the Greeks. In an effort to avenge his father’s loss at the Battle of Marathon and the bring all of Greece under his heel, Xerxes I personally led his army by land from Anatolia (modern day Turkey) into Greece in 480 BC. According to the fifth century BC Greek historian, Herodotus, who wrote the most detailed primary account of the wars, the Persian army – which included soldiers, sailors, marines, and various support personnel – numbered 1,700,000 men. <ref> Herodotus. <i> The Histories.</i> Translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt. (London: Penguin Books, 2003), Book III, 90</ref>  Although many modern historians dispute the large number, nearly all believe that the Persian army vastly outnumbered anything the Greeks could muster and to make matters worse, the Greeks were often divided and warring amongst themselves. Although Xerxes I wanted to subdue all of Greece, most of his vitriol was directed at the Athenians because they were viewed as responsible for instigating the Ionian Greeks to rebel against Persian rule in 499 BC, which effectively started the Persian Wars. During the Ionian Revolt, the Athenians attacked the ancient Lydian city of Sardis, burning most of it to the ground, including its temple. According to Herodotus, Xerxes I told his commanders that he would “not rest until I have taken Athens and burnt it to the ground” because the Athenians “came to Sardis with Aristagoras the Milesian, a slave of ours, and burnt the temples and sacred groves.” <ref> Herodotus, Book VII, 8</ref>