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==Introduction==The Third Century Crisis in the 2nd century AD was a series of military, social, and political crises that almost destroyed the Roman Empire<youtube>https://www. For some fifty years (235-285 AD), one of the world’s greatest Empire’s and one of the most influential state’s in history was stricken by military revolts, barbarian invasions, economic collapse, plague, and political divisionsyoutube. For many years it seemed that the Roman Empire would fragment and collapse. However, a series of military Emperors managed to save the state and allowed it to continue to exist in the west for almost two hundred years and in the east for another thousand years. The origins of the Third Century Crisis is complex. It will be argued that the crisis was a result of, a breakdown in army discipline, barbarian invasions, the rise of the Sassanian Empire, and natural disasters. [[File: Third Century AD one.jpg |200px|thumb|left| Bust of Emperor Alexander Severus]]com/watch?v=LTqmIFEx72E</youtube>

==The Rise of Sassanian Persia==__NOTOC__In 224 [[File: Third Century AD, Ardashir, the ruler one.jpg |200px|thumb|left| Bust of Fars Emperor Alexander Severus]]The Third Century Crisis in modern Iran, the 2nd century AD defeated and killed the last was a series of the Parthian kings military, social, and this is seen as political crises that almost destroyed the beginning of the Sassanian Roman Empire. Its Emperors or ‘King For some fifty years (235-285 AD), one of Kings’ portrayed themselves as the heirs world’s greatest Empire’s and one of the Great Persian Empire of Xerxes <ref> Heckstermost influential state’s in history was stricken by military revolts, p 139</ref>barbarian invasions, economic collapse, plague, and political divisions. It was a much more formidable state For many years it seemed that the Parthian Roman Empire would fragment and within two decadescollapse.  However, a series of military Emperors managed to save the Sassanians ruled an area much larger than anything governed by their predecessorsstate and allowed it to continue to exist in the west for almost two hundred years and in the east for another thousand years. The neo-Persian Empire was origins of the Third Century Crisis is complex. It will be argued that the crisis was a centralized state and had result of a regular breakdown in army. From discipline, barbarian invasions, the rise of the 220s it began raiding Roman Syria Sassanian Empire, and Asia Minor under natural disasters. == How did the capable and ruthless Shapur I. The emergence of a new power in 3rd Century Crisis Begin? ==In 200 AD, the east Roman Empire was at its greatest extent since Trajan's reign, and a very serious challenge for the legionsstrong Emperor, Septimius Severus, governed it. It The Empire seemed that invincible, and it had overawed the army was overstretched as they were forced to fight Germans in Europe German and Persians in the Near EastIranian tribes on its Rhine and Danuban frontiers. In consequence<ref>Hekster, the legions could not defend the frontiersOliver. ThisRome and its Empire, in turnAD 193–284 (Edinburgh 2008), led to the rise of local warlords and ultimately the rise of the Palmyrene p 119</ref> The Parthian Empire, which for once Rome’s most formidable enemy in the east, was no longer a time ruled almost all of the near East and even Egyptserious threat. The foundation of local elites in the Sassanian Empire, under had become Romanized and were very loyal to Rome.  However, beneath the surface, the state had been undermined by a series of able rulersproblems. Inflation, was one as a result of the debasing of the most significant factors currency, was causing persistent economic issues.<ref>Heckster, p 127</ref> Moreover, the plague that had ravaged Rome and its provinces in the Third Century Crisis160s had led to a dramatic drop in the population, and this was to have long-term consequences for the Imperial territories. [[File: 3rd century crisisAfter the death of Emperor Severus, his sons Geta and Caracalla ruled as co-Emperors.jpg |200px|thumb|left|alt text]] ==Natural Calamities==The inability Caracalla murdered his brother and became sole ruler and according to Gibbon he ‘was the common enemy of mankind.’<ref>Gibbon, Edward, <i>Decline and Fall of the Romans to defend their borders Roman Empire</i>, chapter 6</ref> After Caracalla was related to socioassassinated, in 217 AD, he was succeeded by an alleged relative Elagabalus, a former priest in a sun-economic factors. A pandemic had decimated the Imperial territories cult in the 250s and 260s and this led to population declineSyria. The plague according sources are all hostile to GibbonElagabalus, ‘five thousand persons died daily in who tried to impose his religion on Rome, and many towns, that had escaped the hands of the barbarians, were entirely depopulated’ be transgender.<ref>Gibbon, I, chapter 8Chp 6</ref>. This had serious repercussions as the army found it harder to recruit legionnaires and the tax base When he was assassinated (222 AD), he was much reducedsucceeded by his nephew Alexander Severus, which led who was a benign ruler who was prepared to serious economic dislocationcooperate with the Senate. Then However, he too was assassinated, and his death is widely seen as we have seen climate change reduced the yield of agricultural surplus and this led to the near collapse of long-distance tradestart of the Third Century Crisis. Then the constant tax demands of <ref>Hekster, p 198</ref> == What were the Emperors added problems that led to the dire situation in many provinces. All of these compounded Roman Empire's Third Century Crisis? ==Alexander Severus had been assassinated because he tried to buy off German invaders and the difficulties facing Rome army was repelled by this and weakened its ability to defend itself against Macrinus the Praetorian Prefect became Emperor in 235 AD. The military situation on the Persians Rhine and Germans. However, the economic Danube was dire as more and social decline of the Empire should not be overstatedmore German tribes invaded Roman provinces. In 238 AD, as seen Macrinus was deposed in its revival under a coup. Five more Emperors ascended the Illyrian Emperors.==The Military Anarchy==The Third Century Crisis is sometimes known as throne before they too were assassinated, all in the ‘Military Anarchy’ space of 12 months.<ref>ScarreWatson, Chris, Chronicle of <i>Alaric Aurelian and the Roman Emperors: the reign-by-reign record of the rulers of Imperial Rome, Third Century</i> (LondonTaylor & Francis, Thames & Hudson, 19952004), p 198134</ref>. In other words The Empire was dominated by a series of military adventurers or warlords, who temporarily gained the army throne before being assassinated. There was not controlled by any unified authority. The different legions sought to have their general no central government and the army had become Emperor, because fractured and instead of battling the prestige and the monetary rewards that many barbarians they would secure upon his accessionengage in countless civil wars. As a result, This greatly weakened the once-mighty Roman legions in and placed a considerable burden on the Balkans would fight those from citizenry.  Moreover, the Western provinces in order to determine who should become Praetorian Guard, the ruler bodyguards of the Roman WorldEmperor, often assassinated their rulers, out of political expediency or sheer greed. The root cause of For a brief period, Emperor Philip managed to stabilize the civil wars situation. However, his assassination marked a new and endless usurpations was even darker period in the fact that Rome crisis. Decius succeeded Phillip, and he had not developed to deal with a formal succession process even though it Gothic invasion. He was defeated and killed at the Battle of Abrittus (251 AD). Every year there was a de-facto monarchyseries of barbarian invasions, which would ravage entire provinces. As a resultTo compound the situation, any general with an army could intimidate the Senate to recognize his right to become Parthians in the east were replaced by the legitimate EmperorSassanian Empire. This led They were to prove to a profoundly unstable system and for almost fifty years there was rarely a strong governmentbe even more formidable enemies of Rome.  The Sassanian monarch defeated several Roman armies and even captured Emperor Valerian and his entire army. Because as Gibbon noted ‘the soldiery had become aware of their power’The apparent failure of the Roman government and army to defend the provinces lead to growing separatism in the provinces, they disregarded any authority that was not aligned with their interests <ref> Gibbonand this led to the fragmentation of the Empire.  By 268, I, Chpthe empire had split into rival states. 7</ref>Much of western Europe was part of the Gallic Empire. The result was endless civil wars that depleted In the east, the ranks great city of Palmyra under Odaenathus had driven back the legions Persians and meant that they could not defend created the so-called Palmyrene Empire, which was later ruled by the Imperial provinceslegendary Queen Zenobia.<ref>Pat Southern. It was only when the army was brought under the control of Diocletian and his reformed administration that the civil wars endedEmpress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen (London, Continuum, 2008), and the legions could once again protect the Empirep. 133 </ref> [[File: 3rd century AD 2. ==Conclusion==The Third Century Crisis jpg |200px|thumb|left| Emperor Decius who was a fifty-year emergency when defeated and killed by the Romans struggled to preserve their state Goths]]Furthermore, parts of Dacia and their way of lifethe Rhine provinces were occupied by German tribes. There are a series No part of factors that led to the crisis. The constant invasions of barbarians especially German tribal confederations meant that Rome could barely defend its bordersEmpire was safe from raiders, and Gothic pirates besieged even Athens. Then During the rise of many wars and invasions, pan-Mediterranean trade was severely curtailed. Hyper-inflation became the Sassanian Empire meant that the Roman legions norm. Agriculture was disrupted, and food shortages were overstretched common and constantly under pressure. The impact another eruption of the constant fighting on plague devasted many urban centers. However, the economy and society was devastating and seriously undermined the ability of successive Emperors Empire managed to manage pull itself back from the military situation. Then abyss under a series of natural disastersmilitary Emperors. The Roman army remained very formidable, including plague and climate changeunder several Illyrian Emperors, damaged the Romans ability to fight. The lack order was restored in the provinces, and the frontiers secured.  ==When did the Third Century Crisis of a formal succession plan for Emperors led to the army becoming Roman Empire End?The recovery began when Claudius II defeated a Gothic invasion. After he died of the power-broker plague, he was succeeded by his Master of Cavalry, Aurelian in 275 AD. He was a brilliant commander and this led he defeated several barbarian invasions. He then went on to interminable civil wars defeat the Gallic and Palmyrene Empire. Instability continued after Aurelian's assassination, and revoltsit was only with Diocletian's accession that the crisis was finally ended. The Military Anarchy was perhaps the single most significant factor in the Third Century Crisis and the near destruction of the Roman Empire.  However, it is widely held that the Third Century Crisis permanently weakened the Empire. It ushered in trends that many see as marking the beginning of the end of the world of Antiquity and marking the transition to the Medieval world.<ref> Brown, P, The World of Late Antiquity (W Norton, London, 1971), p. 22 </ref> == Which Barbarian Invasions weakened Rome? ==In the reign of Alexander Severus, there was a sudden rise in the number of raids by German and other barbarians. These raids were a part of life for Rome’s frontier population, but by the 230s, they became more intense and frequent.<ref> Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (London, Routledge, 2015), p 356</ref> German tribes became better organized and formed into confederations such as the Franks.  <dh-ad/> The emergence of the Goths, who created a large state in modern Ukraine, created a significant challenge for the Balkan and Black Sea provinces. They were militarily powerful and were especially proficient in cavalry and even took to the sea to launch piratical attacks in the 250 AD. The barbarian attacks were ferocious for two reasons. First, the Romans had been weakened by constant warfare. The bloody civil wars had been especially devasting. The Roman legions could no longer defeat foreign raids and invasions.<ref>Heckster, p 113</ref>  Second, the barbarians were often desperate. Climate change and rising sea levels impacted their food supply, and they were forced to raid deeper and deeper into Imperial Roman territories. They needed to secure resources and seize arable lands to stay alive. The continuous barbarian invasion thus weakened the Empire, and this encouraged further raiding by tribal confederations beyond the Rhine and Danube. == How did the Rise of Sassanian Persia threaten Rome? ==[[File: 3rd century crisis.jpg |200px|thumb|left|The ruins of Palmyra in present-day Syria 2010]]In 224 AD, Ardashir, the ruler of Fars in modern Iran, defeated and killed the last of the Parthian kings and this is seen as the beginning of the Sassanian Empire. Its Emperors or ‘King of Kings’ portrayed themselves as the heirs of the Great Persian Empire of Xerxes.<ref> Heckster, p 139</ref> It was a much more formidable state that the Parthian and within two decades, the Sassanians ruled an area much larger than anything governed by their predecessors. The neo-Persian Empire was a centralized state and had a regular army.  As soon as the Sassanians took power, they began raiding Roman Syria and Asia Minor under the capable and ruthless Shapur I. The emergence of a new force in the east was a grave challenge for the legions. The constant battles with the Germans in Europe and Persians in the Near East had overstretched the Roman Army. In consequence, the legions could not defend the frontiers. This, in turn, led to the rise of local warlords and ultimately the rise of the Palmyrene Empire, which for a time ruled almost all of the Near East and even Egypt. Under a series of able rulers, the foundation of the Sassanian Empire was one of the most significant factors in the Third Century Crisis. == What role did pandemics and climate change in the 3rd Century Crisis? ==The inability of the Romans to defend their borders was related to socio-economic factors. A pandemic had decimated the Imperial territories in the 250s and 260s, leading to population decline. The plague, according to Gibbon, ‘five thousand persons died daily in Rome, and many towns that had escaped the hands of the barbarians were entirely depopulated.’<ref>Gibbon, I, chapter 8</ref> This had serious repercussions as the army found it harder to recruit legionnaires. The tax base was much reduced, which led to serious economic dislocation.  As we have seen, climate change reduced the yield of agricultural surplus, which led to the near-collapse of long-distance trade. Then the constant tax demands of the Emperors added to the dire situation in many provinces. These compounded the difficulties facing Rome and weakened its ability to defend itself against the Persians and Germans. However, the economic and social decline of the Empire should not be overstated, as seen in its revival under the Illyrian Emperors. == Why did the Roman Army fall apart during the Third Century? ==The Third Century Crisis is sometimes known as the ‘Military Anarchy.’<ref>Scarre, Chris, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: the reign-by-reign record of the rulers of Imperial Rome, (London, Thames & Hudson, 1995), p 198</ref> In other words, the army was not controlled by any unified authority. The different legions sought to have their general become Emperor because of the prestige and monetary rewards they would secure upon their accession. As a result, the legions in the Balkans would fight those from the Western provinces to determine who should become the ruler of the Roman World.  The root cause of the civil wars and endless usurpations was the fact that Rome had not developed a formal succession process even though it was a de-facto monarchy. As a result, any general with an army could intimidate the Senate to recognize his right to become the legitimate Emperor. This led to a profoundly unstable system, and for almost fifty years, there was rarely a strong government. Because as Gibbon noted ‘the soldiery had become aware of their power’, they disregarded any authority that was not aligned with their interests.<ref> Gibbon, I, Chp. 7</ref> The result was endless civil wars that depleted the legions' ranks and meant that they could not defend the Imperial provinces. It was only when the army was brought under Diocletian's control and his reformed administration that the civil wars ended, and the legions could once again protect the Empire. == Conclusion ==The Third Century Crisis was a fifty-year emergency when the Romans struggled to preserve their state and their way of life. There are a series of factors that led to the crisis. The constant invasions of barbarians, especially German tribal confederations, meant that Rome could barely defend its borders. Then the rise of the Sassanian Empire meant that the Roman legions were overstretched and constantly under pressure. The constant fighting on the economy and society was devastating and seriously undermined the ability of successive Emperors to manage the military situation. A series of natural disasters, including plague and climate change, damaged the Romans' ability to fight. The lack of a formal succession plan for Emperors led to the army becoming the power-broker and this led to interminable civil wars and revolts. The Military Anarchy was perhaps the single most significant factor in the Third Century Crisis and the near destruction of the Roman Empire. ====Further Readings==Further Readings==

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