==Introduction==The Peace of Augsburg (1555) was a peace treaty that sought to end the religious struggle in the German lands and in the Holy Roman Empire in the mid-sixteenth century. The Peace of Augsburg was signed by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who was a Catholic and the Protestant Schmalkaldic League. The treaty was an attempt to end the series of religious wars that had destabilized the Holy Roman Empire, which was the largest political entity in Europe now. It led to the Settlement of Augsburg that sought to prevent Catholics and Protestants from going to war again and to end religious tensions in Germanic lands. The treaty did maintain peace in the Holy Roman Empire but the treaty ultimately failed. This article is concerned with the reasons for the failure of the Peace of Augsburg and why it ultimately led to the Thirty Years Wars. The settlement failed because it did not, admit Calvinist to the terms of the treaty and it failed to define the religious status of the Episcopal states. Most importantly it created a mutually hostile Protestant and a Catholic bloc in Central Europe and this directly led to the Thirty Years War, the most brutal conflict according to some, in European history. [[File: 759px-Carlos V en Mühlberg, by Titian, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Mulhberg]]==Background==The Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states, of various sizes. The Holy Roman Emperor, who was a member of the House of Hapsburg directly ruled some of the lands but in the rest of the Empire he was only a ‘nominal head of state’<refyoutube> Hale, JR, Reformation Europe (Pelican, London, 1998), p 134<https://ref>. The Hapsburg’s the hereditary rulers of Austria were elected Emperor by the major states in the Empire, as a result it was very de-centralized and a loose federation. It has often been likened to the modern European Union. In 1517 Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses on the door of the Cathedral in Wittenbenberg. In these, he challenged the authority of the Pope and called for the reform of the Church based on the Bible. This initiated the Reformation in the Holy Roman Empire. The Catholic Church attempted to suppress Luther and he was forced to seek the protection of the ruler of Saxony. The message of Luther and his calls to reform the church was greeted enthusiastically in many parts of Germany. The elite and the urban middle class were tired of the corruption and worldliness of the Church. This led to the establishment of many break-away churches that refused to acknowledge the authority of the Popewww. Many temporal rulers in Germany adopted Protestantism and secularized Church lands and established Protestant Churches in their landyoutube. In 1531, these Protestant rulers came together to form the Schmalkaldic League, which was a military and a political alliance and they worked together to ‘promote and expand Protestantism’<ref> Cameron, Euan. The European Reformation (Second ed.). (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 113<com/ref>. Charles V was the Holy Roman Emperor and a Catholic and he lost control of much of Germany to the League. He tried to enter negotiations with the Protestant League but these were unsuccessful. The supports of Luther know that Charles was too preoccupied with his wars in Italy and with the Ottoman’s to intervene. It was only after Charles V had defeated the French king could he turn his attention to affairs in Germany. He formed a League that aimed to destroy Protestantism and re-establish religious unity in the Empire. Charles and his army was successful and captured Saxony and won a great victory at the Battle of Milberg. Despite these defeats, the Protestants refused to come to terms and abandon their faith. Charles became aware that it would be impossible to destroy Protestantism. One of the members of his League defected to the Protectants and he helped them to win a minor victory. This persuaded the aged and infirm Charles of the futility of any further war. By the 1550s, Protestantism had been established too firmly within the Empire Central Europe to be ended by arms. Charles V wanted to secure the succession of his son to the throne of Spain and his nephew to the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor and required peace. He decided to ‘come to terms with the Protestants and this led ‘first to an armistice and then to the Treaty of Augsburg’ <ref>Von Friedeburg, Robert. "Cuius Regio, Eius Religio: The Ambivalent Meanings of State Building in Protestant Germany, 1555–1655." In Diversity and Dissent: Negotiating Religious Difference in Central Europe, 1500-1800, edited by Louthan Howard, Cohen Gary B., and Szabo Franz A. J., 73-91. Berghahn Books, 2011 watch?v=Ej7eFLgFzN4</refyoutube>.
[[File: Lucas Cranach d.Ä. (Werkst.) - Porträt des Martin Luther (Lutherhaus Wittenberg).jpg|200px|thumb|left|Portrait of Martin Luther]]
==The Treaty==__NOTOC__The Peace of Augsburg[[File: 759px-Carlos V en Mühlberg, by Titian, also called the Augsburg Settlement was signed from Prado in September 1555 by Google Earth.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and the Schmalkaldic League, signed on 25 September 1555 at the imperial city Battle of Mulhberg]]The Peace of Augsburg <ref>Elliot, J.H. Imperial Spain 1469–1716. Penguin Books (New York: 20021555), p. 208</ref>. It officially ended was a peace treaty that sought to end the religious war and attempted to establish a religious settlement struggle in the sprawling German lands<ref> Hale, p. 134</ref>. The principle of cuius regio, eius religio, was the most important aspect of the treaty. This principle states that the ruler of the realm decided the faith of the people <ref>Von Friedneburg, p 76</ref>. This was to ensure the internal unity of the states within and the Holy Roman Empire. If a ruler was Catholic then he could determine that all those who lived in his realm had to be Catholics. Those who did not accept the situation could migrate to a jurisdiction that was Protestantmid-sixteenth century. A Lutheran ruler had the same rights about the religion The Peace of his subjects as a Catholic. In Augsburg was signed by Charles V, the Holy Roman EmpireEmperor, there were many Ecclesiastical States, such as the city state of Cologne<ref>Hale, p. 117</ref>. These were realms that were ruled by Catholic Bishops or Archbishops. If who was a prelate changed his faith to Protestantism he was expected to resign and make way for another Catholic bishop<ref>Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany, The Reformation (Princeton: Princeton University Press), p. 195</ref>. Knights were also exempted from the requirement of religious uniformity and they could still practice their faith even if it was at odds with that of their ruler. One of the most important aspects of the Treaty was that it only applied to Lutherans and Catholics. Rulers who followed Calvinism and the teachings of the Anabaptists were not recognizedProtestant Schmalkaldic League. The rights of members of these churches were also not recognized by the Peace and they not accorded parity of esteem with Catholics and Protestants. The treaty sought to ensure a balance of power between Germanys’ Protestant and Catholics and in doing so to ensure peace and Augsburg was an end to sectarian strife. In the near term, it did manage attempt to end the war but the series of religious conflict was to persist in many areas. The Peace of Augsburg guaranteed wars that had destabilized the House of Hapsburg would continue to be elected the Imperial ruler. HoweverHoly Roman Empire, which was the Emperor had little or no control of northern Germany largest political entity in Europe at the heartland of Lutheranismtime.
== Religious tensions==The Peace treaty, also known a the Settlement of Augsburg created a temporary end , sought to hostilities, it did not resolve the underlying prevent Catholics and Protestants from going to war again and to end religious tension in Germany tensions and violence in central Europethe Imperial lands. There were continued tensions between Catholics and ProtestantsThe treaty briefly did maintain peace in the Holy Roman Empire, but the treaty ultimately failed. Despite the agreement that those who Why did not share the religion Peace of Augsburg fail, and how did it lead to the prince or ruler should conform or leave the realm, in the treaty many Thirty Years Wars? The settlement ultimately failed because it did not. This meant that there were rival groups admit Calvinist to the terms of Catholics the treaty, and Protestants living near each other in an uneasy peaceit was unable to define the religious status of the Episcopal states. There are many instances of riots Most importantly, it created a mutually hostile Protestant and violence between the two groupsa Catholic bloc in Central Europe. The situation was made more complex by This hostility eventually led to the spread of Calvinism in Thirty Years War, the latter part of the sixteenth centurymost brutal conflict, according to some, in European history. Many Germans were drawn to ==What conflict did the teachings Peace of Calvin and his ideas on the ‘elect’ and ‘predestination’Augsburg end?==[[File: Lucas Cranach d.Ä. Several German rulers especially in Brandenburg and the Rhineland tolerated Calvinists(Werkst. The Calvinists although Protestants were not Lutherans and they were distrusted and even persecuted by Lutheran rulers) - Porträt des Martin Luther (Lutherhaus Wittenberg). Catholics naturally saw them as just another Protestant sectjpg|300px|thumb|left|Portrait of Martin Luther]]The Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states of various sizes. The rise Holy Roman Emperor, a member of Calvinism in Germany was not foreseen by the Peace House of Hapsburg, directly ruled some of Augsburg. At the time lands, but he was only a ‘nominal head of state in the writing rest of the treaty they were a small groupEmpire. By the 1580s they were a significant minority and their activities helped to increase religious tensions in Germany. By the 1600s several rulers proclaimed themselves Calvinists’<ref> Hale, JR, such as the Landgrave <i>Reformation Europe</i> (Pelican, London, 1998), p 134</ref> The Hapsburg’s hereditary rulers of Hesse-Kassel and the Elector of Brandenburg. As CalvinistsAustria, they were not covered elected Emperor by the principle of ‘one ruler, one faith’, this threw major states in the entire Peace of Augsburg into doubtEmpire. Furthermore As a result, it was a very loose federation. It has often been likened to the modern European Union. In 1517, Calvinists because they were recognized under Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses on the Peace door of Augsburg were the Cathedral in effect unable to secure any tolerance Wittenberg. In these, he challenged the Pope's authority and called for their faith in the Empirereform of the Church based on the Bible. This was to play an important part Luther's actions initiated the Reformation in the breakdown of the Augsburg SettlementHoly Roman Empire. Indeed The Catholic Church attempted to suppress Luther, and he was forced to seek the collapse protection of the Augsburg settlement can be attributed to actions borne out ruler of Calvinists frustrationsSaxony. The so-called ‘defenestration message of Prague’ involved Calvinists attacking Luther and throwing representatives of his calls to reform the Holy Roman Emperor out a windowchurch was greeted enthusiastically in many parts of Germany. The elite and the urban middle class were tired of the corruption and worldliness of the Church. This was led to trigger the Thirty Years War establishment of many break-away churches that left most refused to acknowledge the authority of central Europe a wasteland <ref> Wilson, Peter, The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedythe Pope. London: Belknap PresMany temporal rulers in Germany adopted Protestantism and secularized Church lands and established Protestant Churches in their land. In 1531, 2011)these Protestant rulers came together to form the Schmalkaldic League, p. 67a military and a political alliance, and ‘promote and expand Protestantism.’</ref>Cameron, Euan. [[File: Karel Svoboda Defenestrace<i>The European Reformation</i> (Second ed.jpg |200px|thumb|left|Defenestration of Prague 1618]]==Bishops and Rulers==In the Holy Roman Empire) (Oxford, Oxford University Press, there were very many ecclesiastical principalities 2002), p. 113</ref> Charles V was the Holy Roman Emperor and they ranged in size from a small town Catholic, and he lost control of much of Germany to large territories, often containing significant urban centers such as Colognethe League. The Treaty after protracted He tried to enter negotiations had to deal with the issue of ecclesiastics who converted to LutheranismProtestant League, but these were unsuccessful. The Catholic side supporters of Luther knew that Charles was concerned that if a bishop or another religious leader converted that too preoccupied with his realm would become Lutheranwars in Italy and the Ottoman’s to intervene. This Only after Charles V had happened during defeated the ReformationFrench king could he turn his attention to Germany affairs. The Head of He formed a League that aimed to destroy Protestantism and re-establish religious unity in the Teutonic Knights in PrussiaEmpire. Charles and his army were victorious and captured Saxony, originally an order of warrior-monks had converted to Protestantism and as won a result all great victory at the Prussian territories had become ProtestantBattle of Milberg. Despite these defeats, the Protestants refused to come to terms and abandon their faith. The Catholics demanded Charles became aware that any bishop or religious leader that had converted it would be impossible to Lutheranism should return destroy Protestantism. One of his realm as by rights their lands belonged League members defected to the Catholic Church. HoweverProtestants, those bishops and others who had converted refused to return their lands he helped them win a minor victory. This shift convinced the aged and became infirm Charles of the secular ruler futility of the former ecclesiastical principalitiesany further war. This was a source of continuing tension between By the Protestants and the Catholics and many of the latter believed that the Protestant side 1550s, Protestantism had not respected or fully implemented been established too firmly within the treaty of AugsburgEmpire Central Europe to be ended by arms. This led Charles V wanted to secure his son's succession to Spain's throne and his nephew to frequent clashes between both members of both confessions over the future crown of Episcopal principalitiesthe Holy Roman Emperor, and this required peace. For example, in He decided to ‘come to terms with the Cologne War (1583-1588)Protestants, when the prince-archbishop became a Protestant it which led ‘first to a brutal sectarian war between Catholics an armistice and Lutherans. One of then to the principal causes Treaty of the Thirty Years War was the ‘lack of clarity over the status of these episcopal princedoms’<ref> WilsonAugsburg. p 67’ </ref>Von Friedeburg, Robert. ==Dividing Christendom=="Cuius Regio, Eius Religio: The Settlement of Augsburg effectively led to the partition Ambivalent Meanings of State Building in Protestant Germany into two separate confessional blocs, one Catholic 1555–1655." <i>In Diversity and the other ProtestantDissent: Negotiating Religious Difference in Central Europe, 1500-1800</i>, edited by Louthan Howard, Cohen Gary B., even though they all inhabited the Holy Roman Empireand Szabo Franz A. It wanted to establish a balance of power between them to ensure peace in the EmpireJ., 73-91. The settlement did succeed in establishing a balance Berghahn Books, 2011 </ref> ==How do you Define the Peace of Augsburg?==The Peace of power Augsburg, also called the Augsburg Settlement, was signed in Germany but it was never a stable one September 1555 by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and it only lasted so long because the Hapsburgs were distracted elsewhereSchmalkaldic League signed on 25 September 1555 at the imperial city Augsburg. The Augsburg Treaty had effectively partitioned not only the Holy Roman Empire but also Christendom<ref> HaleElliot, pJ.H. 118<i>Imperial Spain 1469–1716</refi>. This was the old concept of a common realm that was ChristianPenguin Books (New York: 2002), p. After 208</ref> It officially ended the Peace of Augsburg Germany was composed of two separate confessions who did not trust each other and thought each other heretics. They both sought to gain an advantage over the other and to increase their territory at the expense of the otherreligious war. It attempted to establish a religious settlement in the sprawling German lands.<ref> Hale, p. 134</ref> The settlement principle of Augsburg did end a war but it also copper-fastened <i>cuius regio, eius religio</i>, was the division on most important aspect of the Empire into a Catholic and a Protestant bloc. When treaty. This principle states that the ruler of the realm decided the balance faith of power broke down in 1618the people.<ref>Von Friedneburg, these two mutually hostile religions began a war that was unprecedented in its loss of life and destruction<ref>Wilson, p. 656p 76</ref>. ==Conclusion==The Peace of Augsburg was intended This was to give Germany ensure the states' internal unity within the Holy Roman Empire. If a lasting peace and ruler was Catholic, he could determine that all those who lived in his realm had to be Catholics. Those who did not accept the situation could migrate to give it a religious settlement jurisdiction that would prevent future religious warswas Protestant. A Lutheran ruler had the same rights about the religion of his subjects as a Catholic. The settlement was successful There were the many Ecclesiastical States in the sense that it did prevent a general religious war in Germany and Central Europe until 1618Holy Roman Empire, such as Cologne's city-state. However, the settlement reached at Augsburg in 1555 was fundamentally unstable and its failure was almost guaranteed<ref>Hale, p. 117</ref>. Those who drafted the treaty failed to recognize These were realms that the growth of Calvinism would destabilize it and increase sectarian tensions in the Empire. Because they were not covered ruled by the terms of the treaty they often worked against it and this Catholic Bishops or Archbishops. If a prelate changed his faith to Protestantism, he was expected to lead to conflict in Bohemia that triggered the Thirty Years Warresign and make way for another Catholic bishop.<ref>Holborn, Hajo. Then the settlement did not resolve the status <i>A History of episcopal principalities whose bishop had converted to Lutheranism and this was to poison relations between both sides for decadesModern Germany, The Reformation</i> (Princeton: Princeton University Press), p. Perhaps 195</ref> Knights were also exempted from the most significant failure requirement of the settlement was that it created two mutually hostile blocsreligious uniformity, and there was no mechanism designed by the settlement to defuse tensions or to resolve conflictsthey could still practice their faith even if it were at odds with that of their ruler. This led to the collapse One of the Peace most critical aspects of Augsburg the Treaty was that it only applied to Lutherans and Catholics. Rulers who followed Calvinism and the Thirty Years War, one teachings of the greatest tragedies in Europe’s long historyAnabaptists were not recognized. The rights of members of these churches were also not recognized by the Peace, and they not accorded parity of esteem with Catholics and Protestants. The treaty sought to ensure a balance of power between Germanys’ Protestants and Catholics and ensure peace and end sectarian strife. It managed to end the war in the near term, but the religious conflict persisted in some parts of Germany. The Peace of Augsburg guaranteed that the House of Hapsburg would continue to be elected the Imperial ruler. However, the Emperor had little or no control of northern Germany, the heartland of Lutheranism. <dh-ad/> ==Did the Peace of Augsburg end religious tensions?==[[File: Karel Svoboda Defenestrace.jpg |300px|thumb|left|Defenestration of Prague 1618]]The Peace of Augsburg created a temporary end to hostilities; it did not resolve the underlying religious tension in Germany and central Europe. There were continued tensions between Catholics and Protestants. Despite the agreement that those who did not share the religion of the prince or ruler should conform or leave the realm, in the treaty, many did not. This meant that there were rival groups of Catholics and Protestants living near each other in an uneasy peace. There are many instances of riots and violence between the two groups. The situation was made more complex by the spread of Calvinism in the latter part of the sixteenth century. Many Germans were drawn to Calvin's teachings and his ideas on the ‘elect’ and ‘predestination.’ Several German rulers, especially in Brandenburg and the Rhineland, tolerated Calvinists. The Calvinists, although Protestants were not Lutherans and they were distrusted and even persecuted by Lutheran rulers. Catholics naturally saw them as just another Protestant sect. The Peace of Augsburg did not foresee the rise of Calvinism in Germany. At the time of the writing of the treaty, they were a small group. By the 1580s, they were a significant minority, and their activities helped increase Germany's religious tensions. By the 1600s, several rulers proclaimed themselves Calvinists, such as the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel and the Elector of Brandenburg. As Calvinists, they were not covered by the principle of ‘one ruler, one faith.’ This threw the entire Peace of Augsburg into doubt. Furthermore, Calvinists, because they were recognized under the Peace of Augsburg, were in effect unable to secure any tolerance for their faith in the Empire. This was to play an important part in the breakdown of the Augsburg Settlement. Indeed, the collapse of the Augsburg settlement can be attributed to actions borne out of Calvinists' frustrations. The so-called ‘defenestration of Prague’ involved Calvinists attacking and throwing the Holy Roman Emperor's representatives out a window. This was to trigger the Thirty Years War that left most of central Europe a wasteland.<ref> Wilson, Peter, <i>The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy</i>. London: Belknap Press, 2011), p. 67</ref> ==What was the source of the continuing tension between Catholics and Protestants?==In the Holy Roman Empire, there were very many ecclesiastical principalities. They ranged in size from a small town to large territories, often containing significant urban centers such as Cologne. The Treaty, after protracted negotiations, had to deal with the issue of ecclesiastics who converted to Lutheranism. The Catholic side was concerned that a bishop or another religious leader converted that his realm would become Lutheran. This had happened during the Reformation. The Head of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, originally an order of warrior-monks, had converted to Protestantism, and as a result, all the Prussian territories had become Protestant. The Catholics demanded that any bishop or religious leader that had converted to Lutheranism should return his realm as by rights their lands belonged to the Catholic Church. However, those bishops and others who had converted refused to return their lands and became the secular ruler of the former ecclesiastical principalities. This was a source of continuing tension between the Protestants and the Catholics. Many of the latter believed that the Protestant side had not respected or fully implemented Augsburg's treaty. This led to frequent clashes between both members of both confessions over the future of Episcopal principalities. For example, in the Cologne War (1583-1588), when the prince-archbishop became a Protestant, it led to a brutal sectarian war between Catholics and Lutherans. One of the Thirty Years War principal causes was the ‘lack of clarity over the status of these episcopal princedoms.’<ref> Wilson. p 67</ref> ==What did the Peace of Augsburg accomplish?==<div class="portal" style='float:right; width:35%'> ====Related Articles===={{#dpl:category=German History|ordermethod=firstedit|order=descending|count=6}}</div>The Peace of Augsburg led to the partition of Germany into two separate confessional blocs, one Catholic and the other Protestant, even though they all inhabited the Holy Roman Empire. It sought to establish a balance of power between them to ensure peace in the Empire. The settlement did succeed in establishing a balance of power in Germany. Still, it was never a stable one, and it only lasted so long because the Hapsburgs were distracted elsewhere. The Augsburg Treaty had effectively partitioned not only the Holy Roman Empire but also Christendom.<ref> Hale, p. 118</ref> After Augsburg's Peace, Germany was composed of two separate confessions that did not trust each other and saw each other as heretics. They both sought to gain an advantage over the other and increase their territory at the other's expense. Augsburg's settlement did end a war, but it also copper-fastened the division of the Empire into a Catholic and a Protestant bloc. When the balance of power broke down in 1618, these two mutually hostile religions began a war that was unprecedented in its loss of life and destruction.<ref>Wilson, p. 656</ref> ==Was the Peace of Augsburg successful?==The Peace of Augsburg was intended to give Germany a lasting peace that would prevent future religious wars. The settlement was successful because it did prevent a general religious war in Germany and Central Europe until 1618. However, Augsburg's settlement in 1555 was fundamentally unstable, and its eventual failure was almost guaranteed. Those who drafted the treaty failed to recognize that the growth of Calvinism would destabilize the agreement and increase sectarian tensions in the Empire. Because the terms of the treaty did not cover them, they often worked against it, which led to Bohemia's conflict that triggered the Thirty Years War. The settlement failed to resolve the episcopal principalities' status whose bishops had converted to Lutheranism, which was to poison relations between both sides for decades. Perhaps the most significant failure of the settlement was that it created two mutually hostile blocs. There was no mechanism designed by the settlement to defuse tensions or resolve conflicts. This led to the collapse of the Peace of Augsburg and the Thirty Years War, one of the greatest tragedies in Europe’s long history. ====References====<references/> {{Contributors}}[[Category:Wikis]] [[Category:German History]] [[Category:16th Century History]] [[Category:European History]]
