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==Introduction==__NOTOC__[[File: 759px-Carlos V en Mühlberg, by Titian, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Mulhberg]]The Peace of Augsburg (1555) was a peace treaty that sought to end the religious struggle in the German lands and in the Holy Roman Empire in the mid-sixteenth century. The Peace of Augsburg was signed by Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, who was a Catholic and the Protestant Schmalkaldic League. The treaty of Augsburg was an attempt to end the series of religious wars that had destabilized the Holy Roman Empire, which was the largest political entity in Europe now. It led to the Settlement of Augsburg that sought to prevent Catholics and Protestants from going to war again and to end religious tensions in Germanic lands. The treaty did maintain peace in the Holy Roman Empire but the treaty ultimately failed. This article is concerned with the reasons for the failure of the Peace of Augsburg and why it ultimately led to the Thirty Years Wars. The settlement failed because it did not, admit Calvinist to the terms of the treaty and it failed to define the religious status of the Episcopal states. Most importantly it created a mutually hostile Protestant and a Catholic bloc in Central Europe and this directly led to the Thirty Years War, the most brutal conflict according to some, in European history. [[File: 759px-Carlos V en Mühlberg, by Titian, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Mulhberg]]==Background==The Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states, of various sizes. The Holy Roman Emperor, who was a member of the House of Hapsburg directly ruled some of the lands but in the rest of the Empire he was only a ‘nominal head of state’<ref> Hale, JR, Reformation Europe (Pelican, London, 1998), p 134</ref>. The Hapsburg’s the hereditary rulers of Austria were elected Emperor by the major states in the Empire, as a result it was very de-centralized and a loose federation. It has often been likened to the modern European Union. In 1517 Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses on the door of the Cathedral in Wittenbenberg. In these, he challenged the authority of the Pope and called for the reform of the Church based on the Bible. This initiated the Reformation in the Holy Roman Empire. The Catholic Church attempted to suppress Luther and he was forced to seek the protection of the ruler of Saxony. The message of Luther and his calls to reform the church was greeted enthusiastically in many parts of Germany. The elite and the urban middle class were tired of the corruption and worldliness of the Church. This led to the establishment of many break-away churches that refused to acknowledge the authority of the Pope. Many temporal rulers in Germany adopted Protestantism and secularized Church lands and established Protestant Churches in their land. In 1531, these Protestant rulers came together to form the Schmalkaldic League, which was a military and a political alliance and they worked together to ‘promote and expand Protestantism’<ref> Cameron, Euan. The European Reformation (Second ed.). (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 113</ref>. Charles V, was the Holy Roman Emperor and a Catholic and he lost control of much of Germany to the League. He tried to enter negotiations with the Protestant League but these were unsuccessful. The supports of Luther know that Charles was too preoccupied with his wars in Italy and with the Ottoman’s to intervene. It was only after Charles V had defeated the French king could he turn his attention to affairs in Germany. He formed a League that aimed to destroy Protestantism and re-establish religious unity in the Empire. Charles and his army was successful and captured Saxony and won a great victory at the Battle of Milberg. Despite these defeats the Protestants refused to come to terms and abandon their faith. Charles became aware that it would be impossible to destroy Protestantism. One of the members of his League defected to the Protectants and he helped them to win a minor victorytime. This persuaded the aged and infirm Charles of the futility of any further war. By the 1550s, Protestantism had been established too firmly within the Empire Central Europe to be ended by arms. Charles V wanted to secure the succession of his son to the throne in Spain and his nephew to the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor and required peace. He decided to ‘come to terms with the Protestants and this led ‘first to an armistice and then to the Treaty of Augsburg’ <ref>Von Friedeburg, Robert. "Cuius Regio, Eius Religio: The Ambivalent Meanings of State Building in Protestant Germany, 1555–1655." In Diversity and Dissent: Negotiating Religious Difference in Central Europe, 1500-1800, edited by Louthan Howard, Cohen Gary B., and Szabo Franz A. J., 73-91. Berghahn Books, 2011 </ref>. [[File: Lucas Cranach d.Ä. (Werkst.) - Porträt des Martin Luther (Lutherhaus Wittenberg). jpg|200px|thumb|left|Portrait of Martin Luther]]==The Treaty==

The Peace of Augsburgtreaty, also called known a the Augsburg Settlement was signed in September 1555 by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (the predecessor of Ferdinand I) and the Schmalkaldic League, signed on 25 September 1555 at the imperial city of Augsburg <ref>Elliot, J.H. Imperial Spain 1469–1716. Penguin Books (New York: 2002), p. 208</ref>. It officially ended the religious sought to prevent Catholics and Protestants from going to war again and attempted to establish a end religious settlement tensions and violence in the sprawling German Imperial lands<ref> Hale, p. 134</ref>. The principle of cuius regio, eius religio, was the most important aspect of the treaty. This principle states that the ruler of the realm decided the faith of the people <ref>Von Friedneburg, p 76</ref>. This was to ensure the internal unity of the states within the Holy Roman Empire. If a ruler was Catholic then he could determine that all those who lived briefly did maintain peace in his realm had to be Catholics. Those who did not accept the situation could migrate to a jurisdiction that was Protestant. A Lutheran ruler had the same rights about the religion of his subjects as a Catholic. In the Holy Roman Empire, there were many Ecclesiastical States, such as but the city state of Cologne<ref>Hale, p. 117</ref>. These were realms that were ruled by Catholic Bishops or Archbishops. If a prelate changed his faith to Protestantism he was expected to resign and make way for another Catholic bishop<ref>Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany, The Reformation (Princeton: Princeton University Press), p. 195</ref>. Knights were also exempted from the requirement of religious uniformity and they could still practice their faith even if it was at odds with that of their ruler. One of the most important aspects of the Treaty was that it only applied to Lutherans and Catholics. Rulers who followed Calvinism and the teachings of the Anabaptists were not recognized. The rights of members of these churches were also not recognized by the Peace and they not accorded parity of esteem with Catholics and Protestants. The treaty sought to ensure a balance of power between Germanys’ Protestant and Catholics and in doing so to ensure peace and an end to sectarian strifeultimately failed. In the near term, it Why did manage to end the war but religious conflict was to persist in many areas. The Peace of Augsburg guaranteed that the House of Hapsburg would continue fail and how did it lead to be elected the Imperial ruler. However, the Emperor had little or no control of northern Germany the heartland of Lutheranism.Thirty Years Wars?

== Religious tensions==The Peace of Augsburg created a temporary end to hostilities, settlement ultimately failed because it did not resolve , admit Calvinist to the terms of the underlying religious tension in Germany treaty and it was unable to define the religious status of the Episcopal states. Most importantly, it created a mutually hostile Protestant and a Catholic bloc in central Central Europe. There were continued tensions between Catholics and Protestants. Despite This hostility eventually led to the agreement that those who did not share Thirty Years War, the religion of the prince or ruler should conform or leave the realmmost brutal conflict according to some, in the treaty many did notEuropean history. This meant that there were rival groups  ====Why was the Peace of Catholics and Protestants living near each other in an uneasy peaceAugsburg necessary?====[[File: Lucas Cranach d. There are many instances of riots and violence between the two groupsÄ. (Werkst.) - Porträt des Martin Luther (Lutherhaus Wittenberg). The situation was made more complex by the spread jpg|300px|thumb|left|Portrait of Martin Luther]]The Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of Calvinism in the latter part largely independent states, of the sixteenth centuryvarious sizes. Many Germans were drawn to The Holy Roman Emperor, who was a member of the teachings House of Hapsburg directly ruled some of Calvin and his ideas on the ‘elect’ and ‘predestination’. Several German rulers especially in Brandenburg and lands, but in the rest of the Rhineland tolerated CalvinistsEmpire, he was only a ‘nominal head of state. The Calvinists although Protestants ’<ref> Hale, JR, <i>Reformation Europe</i> (Pelican, London, 1998), p 134</ref> The Hapsburg’s the hereditary rulers of Austria were not Lutherans and they were distrusted and even persecuted by Lutheran rulerselected Emperor by the major states in the Empire. Catholics naturally saw them as just another Protestant sect As a result, it was a very loose federation. The rise of Calvinism in Germany was not foreseen by It has often been likened to the Peace of Augsburgmodern European Union. At In 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses on the time door of the writing Cathedral in Wittenberg. In these, he challenged the authority of the Pope and called for the reform of the treaty they were a small groupChurch based on the Bible. By Luther's actions initiated the 1580s they were a significant minority Reformation in the Holy Roman Empire.  The Catholic Church attempted to suppress Luther and their activities helped he was forced to increase religious tensions in Germany. By seek the 1600s several rulers proclaimed themselves Calvinists, such as protection of the Landgrave ruler of Saxony. The message of Hesse-Kassel Luther and his calls to reform the Elector church was greeted enthusiastically in many parts of BrandenburgGermany. As Calvinists, they The elite and the urban middle class were not covered by tired of the principle corruption and worldliness of ‘one ruler, one faith’, this threw the entire Peace of Augsburg into doubtChurch. Furthermore, Calvinists because they were recognized under This led to the Peace establishment of Augsburg were in effect unable many break-away churches that refused to secure any tolerance for their faith in acknowledge the Empireauthority of the Pope. This was to play an important part Many temporal rulers in Germany adopted Protestantism and secularized Church lands and established Protestant Churches in the breakdown of the Augsburg Settlementtheir land. Indeed In 1531, these Protestant rulers came together to form the collapse of the Augsburg settlement can be attributed Schmalkaldic League, which was a military and a political alliance and they worked together to actions borne out of Calvinists frustrations‘promote and expand Protestantism.’<ref> Cameron, Euan. <i>The so-called ‘defenestration of Prague’ involved Calvinists attacking and throwing representatives of European Reformation</i> (Second ed.) (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 113</ref> Charles V was the Holy Roman Emperor out and a windowCatholic and he lost control of much of Germany to the League. This was He tried to trigger the Thirty Years War enter negotiations with the Protestant League but these were unsuccessful.  The supporters of Luther knew that left most of central Europe a wasteland <ref> Wilson, Peter, The Thirty Years War: Europe's TragedyCharles was too preoccupied with his wars in Italy and the Ottoman’s to intervene. London: Belknap Pres, 2011), pIt was only after Charles V had defeated the French king could he turn his attention to affairs in Germany. 67</ref>He formed a League that aimed to destroy Protestantism and re-establish religious unity in the Empire. [[File: Karel Svoboda DefenestraceCharles and his army were victorious and captured Saxony and won a great victory at the Battle of Milberg.jpg |200px|thumb|left|Defenestration of Prague 1618]]==Bishops and Rulers==In Despite these defeats, the Holy Roman Empire, there were very many ecclesiastical principalities Protestants refused to come to terms and they ranged in size from a small town abandon their faith. Charles became aware that it would be impossible to large territories, often containing significant urban centers such as Colognedestroy Protestantism. The Treaty after protracted negotiations had One of the members of his League defected to deal with the issue of ecclesiastics who converted Protestants, and he helped them to Lutheranismwin a minor victory. The Catholic side was concerned that if a bishop or another religious leader converted that his realm would become LutheranThis shift convinced the aged and infirm Charles of the futility of any further war. This had happened during  By the 1550s, Protestantism had been established too firmly within the ReformationEmpire Central Europe to be ended by arms. The Head Charles V wanted to secure the succession of his son to the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, originally an order throne of Spain and his nephew to the crown of warrior-monks had converted the Holy Roman Emperor and this required peace. He decided to ‘come to Protestantism terms with the Protestants and as a result all this led ‘first to an armistice and then to the Prussian territories had become ProtestantTreaty of Augsburg.’ <ref>Von Friedeburg, Robert. "Cuius Regio, Eius Religio: The Catholics demanded that any bishop or religious leader that had converted to Lutheranism should return his realm as Ambivalent Meanings of State Building in Protestant Germany, 1555–1655." <i>In Diversity and Dissent: Negotiating Religious Difference in Central Europe, 1500-1800</i>, edited by rights their lands belonged to the Catholic ChurchLouthan Howard, Cohen Gary B. However, those bishops and others who had converted refused to return their lands and became the secular ruler of the former ecclesiastical principalitiesSzabo Franz A. J., 73-91. This was a source of continuing tension between Berghahn Books, 2011 </ref> ====What did the Protestants and the Catholics and many Augsburg Settlement do?====The Peace of Augsburg, also called the latter believed that Augsburg Settlement was signed in September 1555 by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Protestant side had not respected or fully implemented Schmalkaldic League, signed on 25 September 1555 at the treaty imperial city of Augsburg. This led to frequent clashes between both members of both confessions over the future of Episcopal principalities<ref>Elliot, J.H. For example, in the Cologne War <i>Imperial Spain 1469–1716</i>. Penguin Books (1583-1588New York: 2002), when p. 208</ref> It officially ended the prince-archbishop became religious war and attempted to establish a Protestant it led to a brutal sectarian war between Catholics and Lutheransreligious settlement in the sprawling German lands. One of the principal causes of the Thirty Years War was the ‘lack of clarity over the status of these episcopal princedoms’<ref> Wilson<ref> Hale, p. p 67134</ref>. ==Dividing Christendom==The Settlement The principle of <i>cuius regio, eius religio</i>, was the most important aspect of Augsburg effectively led to the partition of Germany into two separate confessional blocs, one Catholic and treaty. This principle states that the ruler of the realm decided the other Protestant, even though they all inhabited faith of the Holy people.<ref>Von Friedneburg, p 76</ref> This was to ensure the internal unity of the states within the Holy Roman Empire. It wanted to establish If a balance of power between them ruler was Catholic, then he could determine that all those who lived in his realm had to ensure peace in the Empirebe Catholics. The settlement Those who did succeed in establishing not accept the situation could migrate to a balance jurisdiction that was Protestant.  A Lutheran ruler had the same rights about the religion of power in Germany but it was never his subjects as a stable one and it only lasted so long because the Hapsburgs were distracted elsewhereCatholic. The Augsburg Treaty had effectively partitioned not only In the Holy Roman Empire but also Christendom, there were the many Ecclesiastical States, such as the city-state of Cologne.<ref> Hale, p. 118117</ref>These were realms that were ruled by Catholic Bishops or Archbishops. This was the old concept of If a common realm that prelate changed his faith to Protestantism, he was Christianexpected to resign and make way for another Catholic bishop.<ref>Holborn, Hajo. After the Peace <i>A History of Augsburg Modern Germany was composed of two separate confessions who did not trust each other and thought each other heretics, The Reformation</i> (Princeton: Princeton University Press), p. They both sought to gain an advantage over 195</ref> Knights were also exempted from the other requirement of religious uniformity, and to increase they could still practice their territory faith even if it was at the expense odds with that of the othertheir ruler. The settlement One of Augsburg did end a war but it also copper-fastened the division on most critical aspects of the Empire into a Catholic Treaty was that it only applied to Lutherans and a Protestant blocCatholics. When Rulers who followed Calvinism and the balance teachings of the Anabaptists were not recognized.  The rights of members of power broke down in 1618, these two mutually hostile religions began a war that was unprecedented in its loss of life churches were also not recognized by the Peace and destruction<ref>Wilson, pthey not accorded parity of esteem with Catholics and Protestants. 656</ref>. ==Conclusion== The Peace of Augsburg was intended treaty sought to give Germany ensure a lasting balance of power between Germanys’ Protestant and Catholics and ensure peace and an end to give it a religious settlement that would prevent future religious wars. The settlement was successful in sectarian strife. In the sense that near term, it did prevent a general religious manage to end the war in , but the religious conflict persisted in some parts of Germany and Central Europe until 1618. The Peace of Augsburg guaranteed that the House of Hapsburg would continue to be elected the Imperial ruler. However, the settlement reached at Augsburg in 1555 was fundamentally unstable and its failure was almost guaranteedEmperor had little or no control of northern Germany, the heartland of Lutheranism. Those who drafted  <dh-ad/> ====Did the treaty failed to recognize that the growth Peace of Calvinism would destabilize it and increase sectarian Augsburg end religious tensions in the Empire?====[[File: Karel Svoboda Defenestrace. Because they were not covered by the terms jpg |300px|thumb|left|Defenestration of Prague 1618]]The Peace of the treaty they often worked against Augsburg created a temporary end to hostilities, it did not resolve the underlying religious tension in Germany and this was to lead to conflict in Bohemia that triggered the Thirty Years Warcentral Europe. Then the settlement did There were continued tensions between Catholics and Protestants. Despite the agreement that those who did not resolve share the status religion of episcopal principalities whose bishop had converted to Lutheranism and this was to poison relations between both sides for decades. Perhaps the most significant failure of prince or ruler should conform or leave the realm, in the settlement was treaty many did not. This meant that it created two mutually hostile blocs, there were rival groups of Catholics and there was no mechanism designed by the settlement to defuse tensions or to resolve conflictsProtestants living near each other in an uneasy peace. This led to the collapse There are many instances of riots and violence between the Peace two groups. The situation was made more complex by the spread of Augsburg and Calvinism in the Thirty Years War, one latter part of the greatest tragedies sixteenth century. Many Germans were drawn to the teachings of Calvin and his ideas on the ‘elect’ and ‘predestination’. Several German rulers, especially in Europe’s long historyBrandenburg and the Rhineland, tolerated Calvinists. The Calvinists although Protestants were not Lutherans and they were distrusted and even persecuted by Lutheran rulers.  Catholics naturally saw them as just another Protestant sect. The rise of Calvinism in Germany was not foreseen by the Peace of Augsburg. At the time of the writing of the treaty, they were a small group. By the 1580s they were a significant minority and their activities helped to increase religious tensions in Germany. By the 1600s several rulers proclaimed themselves Calvinists, such as the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel and the Elector of Brandenburg. As Calvinists, they were not covered by the principle of ‘one ruler, one faith’, this threw the entire Peace of Augsburg into doubt. Furthermore, Calvinists, because they were recognized under the Peace of Augsburg, were in effect unable to secure any tolerance for their faith in the Empire. This was to play an important part in the breakdown of the Augsburg Settlement. Indeed, the collapse of the Augsburg settlement can be attributed to actions borne out of Calvinists' frustrations. The so-called ‘defenestration of Prague’ involved Calvinists attacking and throwing representatives of the Holy Roman Emperor out a window. This was to trigger the Thirty Years War that left most of central Europe a wasteland.<ref> Wilson, Peter, <i>The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy</i>. London: Belknap Press, 2011), p. 67</ref> ====Bishops and Rulers====In the Holy Roman Empire, there were very many ecclesiastical principalities and they ranged in size from a small town to large territories, often containing significant urban centers such as Cologne. The Treaty after protracted negotiations had to deal with the issue of ecclesiastics who converted to Lutheranism. The Catholic side was concerned that if a bishop or another religious leader converted that his realm would become Lutheran. This had happened during the Reformation. The Head of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, originally an order of warrior-monks had converted to Protestantism and as a result, all the Prussian territories had become Protestant. The Catholics demanded that any bishop or religious leader that had converted to Lutheranism should return his realm as by rights their lands belonged to the Catholic Church.  However, those bishops and others who had converted refused to return their lands and became the secular ruler of the former ecclesiastical principalities. This was a source of continuing tension between the Protestants and the Catholics and many of the latter believed that the Protestant side had not respected or fully implemented the treaty of Augsburg. This led to frequent clashes between both members of both confessions over the future of Episcopal principalities. For example, in the Cologne War (1583-1588), when the prince-archbishop became a Protestant it led to a brutal sectarian war between Catholics and Lutherans. One of the principal causes of the Thirty Years War was the ‘lack of clarity over the status of these episcopal princedoms.’<ref> Wilson. p 67</ref> ====What did the Peace of Augsburg accomplish?====<div class="portal" style='float:right; width:35%'> ====Related Articles===={{#dpl:category=German History|ordermethod=firstedit|order=descending|count=6}}</div>The Peace of Augsburg led to the partition of Germany into two separate confessional blocs, one Catholic and the other Protestant, even though they all inhabited the Holy Roman Empire. It sought to establish a balance of power between them to ensure peace in the Empire. The settlement did succeed in establishing a balance of power in Germany but it was never a stable one and it only lasted so long because the Hapsburgs were distracted elsewhere. The Augsburg Treaty had effectively partitioned not only the Holy Roman Empire but also Christendom.<ref> Hale, p. 118</ref>  After the Peace of Augsburg, Germany was composed of two separate confessions who did not trust each other and saw each other heretics. They both sought to gain an advantage over the other and to increase their territory at the expense of the other. The settlement of Augsburg did end a war but it also copper-fastened the division on the Empire into a Catholic and a Protestant bloc. When the balance of power broke down in 1618, these two mutually hostile religions began a war that was unprecedented in its loss of life and destruction.<ref>Wilson, p. 656</ref> ====Was the Peace of Augsburg successful?====The Peace of Augsburg was intended to give Germany a lasting peace that would prevent future religious wars. The settlement was successful in the sense that it did prevent a general religious war in Germany and Central Europe until 1618. However, the settlement reached at Augsburg in 1555 was fundamentally unstable and its eventual failure was almost guaranteed. Those who drafted the treaty failed to recognize that the growth of Calvinism would destabilize the agreement and increase sectarian tensions in the Empire. Because they were not covered by the terms of the treaty they often worked against it and this was to lead to conflict in Bohemia that triggered the Thirty Years War.  The settlement failed to resolve the status of the episcopal principalities whose bishops had converted to Lutheranism and this was to poison relations between both sides for decades. Perhaps the most significant failure of the settlement was that it created two mutually hostile blocs, and there was no mechanism designed by the settlement to defuse tensions or to resolve conflicts. This led to the collapse of the Peace of Augsburg and the Thirty Years War, one of the greatest tragedies in Europe’s long history.{{Mediawiki:AmNative}} ====References====<references/> {{Contributors}}[[Category:Wikis]] [[Category:German History]] [[Category:16th Century History]] [[Category:European History]]