Changes

The Roman general and politician Marius was one of the most important figures in the Roman Republic. He was a very controversial figure in during his own time lifetime, and his contributions have been fiercely debated sincethen. Many believed historians have argued that he helped to save the Roman Republic and created laid the foundation for an army that was to prove almost invincible army for centuries. Marius reforms also had important social-political implications and greatly expanded the citizenship body. However, his reforms of the military have been widely criticized because they changed the nature of the Roman army. They led to generals being able to control the armies of Rome. Because of his reforms, the legions of Rome increasingly came under the control of ambitious leaders such as Pompey or Sulla. The Marian reforms that were initiated during a crisis, became an important factor in the decline and the fall of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Imperial system in Rome.

==Background==Rome in 100 BC was a fastMarius's reforms also had important social-growing power. Originallypolitical implications, Rome was only a small settlement on and he dramatically expanded citizenship in the TiberRepublic. HoweverStill, by force of armshis reforms changed the Roman army's nature, it was able to expand its power across much which weakened the democratic character of Italythe republic. The defeat These reforms allowed generals to take control of the Carthaginian Empire meant that Rome no longer had any serious enemy in the Mediterraneanwith their troops. The city-state’s armies were the most formidable in the region and they created a huge Empire. The Roman army was made up Because of citizens and they supplied their own arms and armor. Wealth and slaves flowed into his changes, Rome. However, 's legions increasingly came under the victory over the Carthaginians and the growing wealth control of Rome created problems and eventually led to a crisis in the Roman Republicambitious leaders such as Pompey or Sulla. The government of Rome was designed to govern Marian reforms that were initiated during a city-state and not crisis became an Empire. Increasingly, the Roman senate was unable to control the governors essential factor in the provinces who acted like independent sovereigns<ref> Hildinger, Erik. Swords Against decline and the Senate: The Rise fall of the Roman Army Republic and the Fall of the Republic (NY, Da Capo Press 2002), p 14</ref>Imperial system's rise in Rome.

The political system of ====Background====Rome in 100 BC was unable to effectively govern an Empirea fast-growing power. Rome’s wealth led to increased social divisions and the city Originally, Rome was divided between only a small settlement on the eliteTiber. However, the Optimatesby force of arms, and the popular party, Popularesit was able to expand its power across much of Italy. The common people defeat of the Carthaginian Empire meant that Rome, including many citizens, no longer had any serious enemy in the Mediterranean. The city-state’s armies were experiencing economic decline as slave labor the most formidable in the cities region, and on landed estates resulted in many small farmers and traders going bankruptthey created a huge Empire. There The Roman army was also tension between Rome made up of citizens, and its Italian subjects who wanted a greater say in the Empire they supplied their arms and citizenshiparmor. Wealth and slaves flowed into Rome had become the predominant power in the Mediterranean but it was a very unstable society with a political system on the verge of collapse<ref>Holland, Tom. Rubicon (London, Faber, 2004), p. 34</ref>.

==The career However, the Carthaginians' victory and the growing wealth of Marius==Gaius Marius was born about 157 BCE Rome created problems and eventually led to a crisis in Arpinium in central Italythe Roman Republic. His family The government of Rome was of Equestrian status designed to govern a city-state and they were very influential in the local districtnot an Empire. They had important political connections in RomeIncreasingly, especially with the powerful Scipio family. Marius joined Roman Senate could not control the Roman army at an early age and he was essentially a military man. He served under Scipio governors in Numantia and became a military tribune and later a quaestor. It appears that the Scipio family provinces who acted as the patrons of the young Marius and this greatly helped his careerindependent sovereigns.<ref>HollandHildinger, pErik. 113</refi>. Marius later married Julia Swords Against the aunt Senate: The Rise of Julius Caesar. He later served as an officer in Rome’s war with the North African king Jurgutha. This war was to make Roman Army and the reputation of Marius as a soldier and a general. Marius was eventually given command Fall of the army in the war against Jurgutha and he proved to be a charismatic leader with real military talentRepublic<ref/i>Plutarch. The fall of the Roman Republic (London, Penguin BooksNY, 1987Da Capo Press 2002), p. 14514</ref>. He developed a new strategy to deal with the king and soon captured him. During his time in North Africa, he began the first of his reforms of the military which were technically illegal.

Marius was very concerned with the reluctance The political system of citizens to enroll in the army and the declining number of recruits available to Rome <ref>Plutarch, p. 145</ref>. Marius was later elected one of Rome’s two consuls and he was elected unable to that office govern an unprecedented seven timesEmpire effectively. He Rome’s wealth led to increased social divisions, and the city was associated with divided between the Populares and his policies were often informed by elite, the need to help the urban Optimates, and the rural poorpopular party, Populares. In 105 BCE Rome's common people, while he was consul he was sent to deal with a military threat from including many citizens, were experiencing economic decline as slave labor in the far north. The Cimbri cities and on landed estates resulted in many small farmers and Teuton tribes from modern Scandinavia were migrating towards the Mediterraneantraders going bankrupt. They defeated a Roman army that There was sent to repel them also tension between Rome and they seemed to be on its Italian subjects who wanted a greater say in the verge of overrunning Italy Empire and citizenship. Rome. Marius had become the Mediterranean's predominant power, but it was faced a volatile society with a crisis there were simply not enough citizens to fill political system on the ranks verge of the armycollapse.<ref>PlutarchHolland, Tom. <i>Rubicon</i> (London, Faber, 2004), p 145. 34</ref>. It was at this time that he enacted radical reforms in the army and they became known as the Marian reforms.

In 102 BC, the Germanic tribes, who had invaded Gaul, decided to launch a full-scale attack on Italy. ====The career of Marius had thoroughly reformed the army, by this time. Fortunately, for ====Gaius Marius, the invaders split into two groups and this allowed the Roman general to annihilate them was born about 157 BCE in Arpinium in separate battlescentral Italy. Marius had saved Rome and His family was the leading figure in Rome for some time. A Marius tried to introduce land reforms that would have benefitted the poorof Equestrian status, but and they were blocked by very influential in the Senatelocal district. He did not prove to be a capable politicianThey had important political connections in Rome, but he remained popular especially with the poorpowerful Scipio family. Later he became involved in a series of civil wars with Marius joined the Roman politician army at an early age, and soldier Sulla, leader of the aristocratic faction. Marius during the wars he was able to seize Rome but was later expelled by Sullaessentially a military man. He served under Scipio in Numantia and became a military tribune and later returned to Rome, while Sulla was in a quaestor. It appears that the Scipio family acted as the east and took control patrons of the city once again but died soon afterward in 86 BCE young Marius and this greatly helped his career.<ref>PlutarchHolland, p 151. 113</ref>.

Marius later married Julia, the aunt of Julius Caesar. He then served as an officer in Rome’s war with the North African king Jurgutha. This war was to make the reputation of Marius as a soldier and a general. Marius was eventually given command of the army in the war against Jurgutha, and he proved to be a charismatic leader with real military talent.<ref>Plutarch. <i>The fall of the Roman Republic</i> (London, Penguin Books, 1987), p. 145</ref> He developed a new strategy to deal with the king and soon captured him. During his time in North Africa, he began the first of his military reforms, which were technically illegal.  Marius was very concerned with citizens' reluctance to enroll in the army and the declining number of recruits available to Rome. <ref>Plutarch, p. 145</ref> Marius was later elected one of Rome’s two consuls, and he was elected to that office an unprecedented seven times. He was associated with the Populares, and his policies were often informed by the need to help the urban and the rural poor. In 105 BCE, while he was consul, he was sent to deal with a military threat from the far north. The Cimbri and Teuton tribes from modern Scandinavia were migrating towards the Mediterranean.  They defeated a Roman army sent to repel them, and they seemed to be on the verge of overrunning Italy and Rome. Marius was faced with a crisis. There were just not enough citizens to fill the ranks of the army.<ref>Plutarch, p 145</ref> It was when he enacted radical reforms in the military, and they became known as the Marian reforms.  In 102 BC, the Germanic tribes, who had invaded Gaul, decided to launch a full-scale attack on Italy. Marius had thoroughly reformed the army by this time. Fortunately for Marius, the invaders split into two groups, which allowed the Roman general to demolish them in separate battles. Marius had saved Rome and was the leading figure in Rome for some time. A Marius tried to introduce land reforms that would have benefitted the poor, but the Senate blocked them. He did not prove to be a capable politician, but he remained popular with the poor.  Later, he became involved in a series of civil wars with the Roman politician and soldier Sulla, the aristocratic faction leader. Marius, during the wars, was able to seize Rome but was later expelled by Sulla. He later returned to Rome while Sulla was in the east and took control of the city once again but died soon afterward in 86 BCE.<ref>Plutarch, p 151</ref> ====Marius Reforms====

The most important of the Marian reforms was the army's opening of the army to those who had no property. Previously only those who had land or wealth could join the army. Marius , because of the shortage of manpower workforce in the Rome , recruited even the landless poor. This was strictly against the law , and many conservatives opposed Marius ' efforts.  However, such was as the threat from the Cimbri and The Teutones that Marius was able to get his reform passed. There was a problem with recruiting the poor in that they did not have the resources to purchase their arms and armor., Marius arranged for the Roman state to provide them with arms and equipment. The soldiers would also be paid and this , which made joining the army very attractive for the many landless peasants who had lost their lands because of the expansion in the estates of the rich.  Many poor men rushed to join the army, and they were expected to enlist for at least fifteen years. Marius was also able to standardize the equipment used by the soldiers. He also believed that Rome, because of its Empire and the various threats to its borders, needed a standing army. Previously, the army was only composed of citizen-soldiers.<ref>Polybius. The Histories. 4.1</ref> The soldiers would return home after the end of every campaign. Marius believed that a soldier should be a professional and train full-time. Even in times of peace, the Roman soldier should be ready for war. <ref>Goldsworthy, <i>Adrian The Complete Roman Army</i> (London, Thames & Hudson, 2002), p. 134</ref>  <dh-ad/> Marius reorganized the Roman army, and he reformed the legions. The total number of men per legion was six thousand, and of these, 4800 would be legionnaires and the rest support staff, mainly servants. Marius wanted every legion to be a self-contained fighting force. The legion was divided into centuries commanded by a centurion.<ref>Goldsworthy, p. 117</ref> Each century was comprised of 80 soldiers and twenty support staff. The century was divided into sub-units that contained eight legionaries and two non-combatant support staff. The Roman legionnaires would eat, fight, and live together, which created a great spirit de corps. Marius insisted on regular training and drills, and this meant that the Romans were always physically fit. He also ordered that every man carrying his gear and equipment and the soldiers, as a result, referred to themselves as ‘Marius’ Mules.’<ref>Plutarch, p 146</ref>

Many poor men rushed to join This meant that the army did not have lengthy supply lines and massive baggage trains but was very mobile and they were expected to enlist for at least fifteen yearsflexible. Marius believed that morale was also able to standardize essential in the equipment used by military, and he offered the ordinary soldiersand men retirement benefits. He also believed that Rome, because These were usually in the form of its Empire land for the common soldier and the various threats to its borders needed a standing armymoney for officers. PreviouslyUpon retirement, the army was composed a soldier could expect a parcel of citizen-soldiers<ref>Polybiusland usually in some newly conquered territory. The Histories. 4.1</ref>. The soldiers would return home after One of the end most significant reforms of every campaign. Marius believed was that a soldier should be a professional and train full-timehe granted citizenship status to many Italians. Even Any Italian who fought in times the Roman legion was automatically granted the citizenship of Rome. The reforms of peaceMarius were widely adopted, and they shaped the Roman soldier should be ready for war army right down to the 3rd century AD.<ref>Goldsworthy, Adrian The Complete Roman Army (London, Thames & Hudson, 2002), p. 134119</ref>

==== The social and political impact of the Marian Reforms====The reforms of Marius reorganized did not only change the Roman army and he reformed the legions. The total number of men per legion was six thousand and of these 4800 would be legionnaires and They also change Roman society over the rest support staff, mainly servantslonger term. Marius wanted every legion to be a self-contained fighting force. The legion was divided into centuries that were commanded by a centurion<ref>Goldsworthy, p. 117</ref>. Each century was comprised member of 80 soldiers and twenty support staff. The century was divided into the sub-units that contained 8 legionaries and 2 non-combatant support staff. The Roman legionnaires would eatpopular party, fight and live together and this created a great spirit de corps. Marius insisted on regular training and drills and this meant that the Romans were he was always physically fit. He also ordered that every man carrying his own gear and equipment and keen to advance the soldiers, as a result, referred to themselves as ‘Marius’ Mules’ <ref>Plutarch, p 146</ref>’common people's interests.

This meant that Because of his reforms, the army did not have lengthy supply lines and massive baggage trains but was rather very mobile and flexible. Marius believed that morale was very important in poor could join the army and he offered the common soldiers and men retirement benefits. These were usually in the form of land for the common soldier and money for officers. Upon retirementfirst time, a soldier could expect a parcel of land., usually which provided them with opportunities that allowed them to rise in some newly conquered territorysociety. One of the most important reforms of Marius was that he granted citizenship status to , by allowing many Italians. Any Italian who fought in to become citizens, changed Rome's nature, and it became less of a city-state and rather the Roman legion was automatically granted the citizenship capital of RomeItaly. The reforms ability of Marius were widely adopted and they shaped the Roman army right down many Italians to become citizens did much to the 3rd century ADstrengthen Rome over time.<ref> GoldsworthyHolland, p 119. 189</ref>.

== The social and political impact of the Marian Reforms==The reforms of Then Marius did not only change the army they also change Roman society, over the longer term. Marius was a member of the popular party and he was always keen to advance the interests of the common people. Because of his reforms, the poor could join the army for the first time and this provided them with opportunities that allowed them to rise in society. Marius by allowing many Italians to become citizens changed the nature of Rome and it became less of a city-state and rather the capital of Italy. The ability of many Italians to become citizens did much to strengthen Rome over time<ref>Holland, p. 189</ref>. Then Marius by providing retiring soldiers with land from conquered territories did much to strengthen , strengthened Rome’s control of the provinces by moving former Roman soldiers to these new provinces. Retired soldiers often formed colonies in newly conquered territories , and they strengthened Rome’s helped maintain Rome's hold on newly conquered lands. These colonies also played an important part in the ‘Romanization process’process, ’ whereby provincials adopted Roman practices and cultural norms.<ref>Goldsworthy, p 213</ref>.

====Impact on the military====

Marius undoubtedly strengthened the army as a fighting force. He ensured that for many centuries that the Roman army would not experience any manpower workforce shortage. His reforms also ensured that the Roman soldier was the most professional and well-trained in the Classical World. The Roman army became a standing army and this , which meant that Rome could quickly respond to any threat quickly. The Romans always had an army that was well-trained and experienced and this , which was a critical factor in the expansion of the Empire.  However , the newly established army was more loyal to their generals than to the Senate and the Rome's people of Rome.<ref> Holland, p. 189</ref>. The armies' generals of the armies were responsible for providing for the equipment and the retirement bonuses loyalty of the legionnaires. The general would often extend his command to secure the rights and the rewards of his soldiers. The legionary owed more allegiance to his general and commanding officer than to the state.

This allowed many generals to take control of legions and to use them for their own purposes. Again, and again, over the last century of the Roman Republic, generals such as Pompey had de-facto control of much of the army. This was very destabilizing. This is evident from the fact that there were a bloody series of civil wars.<ref> Julius Caesar, <i>The Civil Wars </i> (London, Penguin Books, 1998), p. 14</ref>. No sooner had the reforms been implemented that an apparently than a never-ending series of wars took place. The Roman generals became more important in Roman politics and they often used their armies to intimidate the Senate. Commanders such as Sula were able to impose their will on the Roman political system. Increasingly, power shifted from the Roman senatorial class to the commanders in the field. The Roman Republic was in crisis as a result, for many decades. Roman generals often used their forces to further their own political ambitions as was the case with Julius Caesar. The establishment of a standing army led ultimately to the destruction of the Republic. The bloody civil wars were only ended by the creation of the Imperial system under Caesar and his grand-nephew Augustus<ref>Holland, p. 178</ref>.

==Conclusion==Marius military reforms were undertaken during a period of crisis. They were The Roman generals became more important in response to an invasion of Italy by German tribes. Marius created a standing armyRoman politics, permitted the enlistment of the poor and provide retirement benefits for veterans. He also reformed the organization of they often used their armies to intimidate the armySenate. These all allowed Marius Commanders such as Sula were able to defeat impose their will on the barbarian invasion and Roman political system. Increasingly, power shifted from the army that he helped to create was Roman senatorial class to drive the expansion of commanders in the field. The Roman Empire Republic was in crisis as a result for years to comemany decades. The changes made to the Roman army had profound social and political consequences as it led to more citizens from outside the traditional elite and the granting of lands generals often used their forces to retired soldiers was crucial in securing conquered provinces and in further their Romanization. Howeverpolitical ambitions, Marius reforms had some unintended consequences as it resulted in soldiers owing more loyalty to their general than to was the statecase with Julius Caesar. This The establishment of a standing army led ultimately to years the destruction of instability and plunged the Roman Republic into decades of . The bloody civil wars. These were only ended with by the fall creation of the Roman Republic Imperial system under Caesar and the emergence of his grand-nephew Augustus as the first emperor. <ref>Holland, p. 178</ref>

====Conclusion====Marius military reforms were undertaken during a period of crisis. They were in response to an invasion of Italy by German tribes. Marius created a standing army, permitted the poor's enlistment, and provided retirement benefits for veterans. He also reformed the organization of the army. These all allowed Marius to defeat the barbarian invasion. The army that he created drove the expansion of the Roman Empire for years to come.  The changes made to the Roman army had profound social and political consequences. It led to more citizens from outside the traditional elite, and the granting of lands to retired soldiers was crucial in securing conquered provinces and their Romanization. However, Marius' reforms had some unintended consequences as they resulted in soldiers' loyalty to their generals than to the state. This led to years of instability and plunged the Roman Republic into decades of civil wars. These were only ended with the fall of the Roman Republic and the emergence of Augustus as the first emperor.  <youtube>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIRS_PMeVVY</youtube> <div class="portal" style="width:85%;">====Related DailyHistory.org Articles====*[[What was the contribution of Pompey the Great to Roman History?]]*[[Alexander the Great Top Ten Booklist]]*[[Why was Alexander the Great So Successful In His Conquests?]]*[[How did the Etruscans shape Roman history and society?]]*[[What was the impact of Augustus' victory over Mark Anthony and Cleopatra on Rome?]]</div>====References====