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__NOTOC__[[File:Black pepper (By R.Boroujerdi).jpeg|left|300px|thumbnail|Figure 1. Black pepper seeds.]]Visiting a restaurant in the Western world or even a home often means finding salt and black pepper as common condiments on the table used to give taste to our dishes. Salt has been native to many regions and is commonly found; however, black pepper was a far more limited plant (<i>Piper nigrum</i>) that natively grew in South and Southeast Asia. The spread of this pepper is intertwined with ancient trade expansion that once connected the length of the Old World. In more recent times, this pepper became a fixed a daily condiment.

==Early HistoryWhere does Black Pepper originally come from?==Archaeologically, we know that black pepper (Figure 1) was used at least by the 4th-3rd millennium BCE in India, although it likely goes even earlier. In fact, although pepper can be found in southeast Asia, it was probably India, and specifically, in the province of Kerala, that black pepper was most utilized or native to. For centuries, it most likely was not traded very far from its places of origin, remaining in India and influencing Indian cuisine to this day. Eventually, however, we begin to get archaeological data that suggest pepper made it to Egypt sometime around the 3-2nd millennium BCE. Traces of black pepper have even been found on Ramses II, specifically in his nose, suggesting it was used in the mummification process. It was likely also used in other parts of the Near East by the 3rd millennium BCE; however, plant remains of pepper are difficult to detect, so this can only be a conjecture.<ref>For more on the ancient use of black pepper, see: Ravindran, P. N., ed. 2000. <i>Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum.</i> Medicinal and Aromatic Plants--Industrial Profiles, v. 13. Australia: Harwood Academic, pg. 5.</ref>

ArchaeologicallyIn fact, we know that black pepper (Figure 1) was used at least by trade and migration of Indo-Aryans in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE likely began to expand black pepper outside of its traditional confines in India. In factIndo-Aryans began to migrate across the Near East and Europe, although pepper can be found in southeast Asialikely bringing their foods and tastes with them. However, it was probably Indiaarchaeologically and historically, and specifically in the province remains of Kerala, that pepper are minimal. This likely suggests it was most utilized either not very popular or even strictly native totoo expensive for common consumption. For centuriesPepper can be preserved through drying easily enough, suggesting it most likely was not traded very far from preservation that would have been a major hurdle for its places of origin, remaining in India and influencing Indian cuisine to this dayspread. EventuallyHowever, however, we begin it's a relatively limited range where it can grow did likely make it more difficult to get archaeological data that suggest pepper made it export to Egypt sometime around some markets.<ref>For more on migration and the 2nd millennium BCE. Traces movement of black pepper have been found on Ramses II, specifically in his nosesee: Sidebotham, suggesting it was used in Steven E. 2011. <i>Berenike and the mummification processAncient Maritime Spice Route.</i> The California World History Library 18. It was likely also used in other parts of the Near East by the 2nd millennium BCE; however, plant remains Berkeley: University of pepper are difficult to detect so this can only be a conjectureCalifornia Press. </ref>

In fact, trade and migration of Indo-Europeans in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE likely began to expand ==How was black pepper outside of its traditional confines traded across the world in Indiaancient times?==[[File:Black_Pepper_-_Raw. Indojpeg|thumbnail|left|300px|Black pepper vine with raw peppers]]Trade-Europeans began in black pepper seems to migrate across have expanded by the 4th century BCE, reaching the Near East Aegean and into Europemore frequently. Black pepper was used as a spice for food, likely bringing their in particular meat. Dried foods with them. However, archaeologically and historically, remains of such as meat often lacked taste; pepper are very limited. This likely suggests it was either not very popular seen to make stored foods that were dried or too expensive for common consumptionsalted more flavorful. Pepper can be preserved through drying easily enoughThis period represented some of the early developments of what would become the Silk Road, suggesting it was not preservation that some of the trade in spices such as pepper and black pepper specifically would have been a major hurdle for its spreadcome via this route. With the conquests of Alexander, Greek colonists were now reaching India, and contacts became more common.

[[FileThe knowledge of important trade winds, development of major empires stretching across Europe to China (there were only 4 major states between Britain and China in the 1st century CE), and increased contacts and movement of people in general now made pepper become commonly imported into Roman Europe. The Roman increasingly made pepper part of their diets, while its popularity spread in the Near East and China. Traders in Arabia and the Middle East probably played important roles as middlemen in the trade network. This not only made them wealthy, but they likely continued to have a hold of this connection even after the fall of Rome. Both the Silk Road and connections via the Indian Ocean were now vital to this trade.<ref>For more on the role of intermediaries in the Silk Road and the Indian Ocean trade, see:Black pepper (By R Elisseeff, Vadime, ed.Boroujerdi)2000.jpeg|thumbnail|Figure 1<i>The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. Black pepper seeds</i> New York : Paris: Berghahn Books ; UNESCO Pub.]]</ref>

==Spread of Black PepperHow was black pepper traded during the middle ages?==[[File:Calicut 1572.jpeg|thumbnail|350px|left|Figure 2. Painting from 1572 showing the harbor at Calicut in Malabar, a key export city in the spice trade since late Antiquity.]]The role of Arabian and Middle Eastern traders continued through the early Medieval period. After the disruptions of Rome's fall, pepper only began to make a comeback in Europe by the later parts of the Medieval period. King Ethelred exacted pepper as a tax to allow European traders in Anglo-Saxon London. Arab traders controlled shipping in the Indian Ocean and trade across the Middle East, giving them a lot of power in the Silk Road trade activities.

The knowledge By the late Medieval Period, Italian traders from Genoa and Venice increasingly controlled much of important the trade windsin pepper in Europe, development where the price of major empires stretching across black pepper in Europe to China (there were only 4 major states between Britain and China remained very high. This likely meant that it was not as commonly consumed as it may have been in the 1st century CE)Roman period. Despite the high price for black pepper, and increased contacts and movement it was still one of people the most important products in general now the Silk Road. In fact, it became the chief spice trade on the Silk Road. To keep prices artificially high, traders even made stories such as black pepper become commonly imported into Roman Europebeing guarded by poisonous serpents, indicating that it was difficult to get. The Roman increasingly made black color was suggested to result from the fires that traders had to make to scare the serpents away.<ref>For more on Medieval traders in spices and black pepper part of their diets, while its popularity also spread in the Near East see: Woolgar, C. M, T Waldron, and ChinaD Serjeantson. 2009. Traders <i>Food in Arabia Medieval England: Diet and Middle East probably played important roles as middle men in the trade networkNutrition. This not only made them wealthy but they likely continued to have a hold of this connection even after the fall of Rome</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, pg. Both the Silk Road and connections via the Indian Ocean were now vital to this trade16.</ref>

The role Dutch were able to gain control of Arabian and Middle Eastern traders continued through the early Medieval period. Increasinglypepper trade by the 17th century, creating strong links to India, Ceylon, howeverJava, Italian traders from Genoa and Venice became important in other southeast Asia areas (Figure 2). The rising power of the Medieval trade British East India Company in pepper to Europe. After the disruptions of 18th and 19th centuries, when the fall of RomeBritish Empire's fortunes increased, pepper only began allowed them to make a comeback in Europe by take over the later parts of the Medieval period. King Ethelred exacted black pepper as a tax to allow European traders in Anglo-Saxon Londontrade eventually. By the late Medieval PeriodDuring this time, the Italian traders from Genoa spices and Venice controlled much of the trade in pepper , in Europeparticular, where the price increasingly began to be under a near-monopoly of black pepper in Europe became very high. This likely meant that it was not commonly consumed as it may have been even in the Roman periodcontrol by British traders. Arab traders also controlled shipping in During the Indian Ocean Dutch and trade across the Middle East, giving them a lot of power in trade activities in the Silk Road. All British control of the middlemen in the Middle East spice and Europe kept pepper prices far too high for most people. However, pepper was still one of the most important products in the Silk Road. To keep prices artificially hightrade, traders even made stories such as black pepper being guarded by poisonous serpentshad increasingly become common that led to its price depreciating considerably.

In fact, it was the rise of prices of pepper and other products that put greater impetus to find new routes to India. Slightly before By this time, Portugal was a rising power and had aspired middle-class consumers were able to control reasonably afford it. During the trade routes to India17 and 18th centuries, with black pepper being one began to emerge as a daily type of their main interests. The trip around Africa, although yielding many new discoveries, was difficult spice used to season meat and longother foods. Nearly 30% of <ref>For more on the cargo brought back from India was lost. European powers wanted to avoid having to have Dutch and their control of trade to the east controlled by middlemen India andSoutheast Asia, so long as prices were very highsee: Jacobs, then E. M. 2006. <i>Merchant in Asia: The Dutch East India Company's Trade during the consumer market would be limitedEighteenth Century. This prompted the eventual discovery of the New World, which was initially thought by Christopher Columbus to be a new route to India rather than a new continent all together</i> CNWS Publications 146. Leiden: CNWS Publications.</ref>

The Dutch were able to gain control of In the pepper trade by the 17th 20th century, creating strong links to India, Ceylon, Java, with decolonization and other areas in southeast Asia. The rising power the demise of major holding companies such as the British East India Company in the 18th and 19th centuries, when the British Empire's fortunes increased. During this time, spices and trade of black pepper was once again in particular increasing began to be under a near monopoly the hands of control by British tradersthe countries that grew it, mainly India southeast Asia. During Today, Vietnam is the time leading exporter of black pepper, accounting for about 34-35% of the Dutch and British control total black pepper trade. Because of its widespread use that goes back to the spice and Classical Period, when regions from Japan to Britain had developed tastes for black pepper trade, it was by then that has become the most common spice today.<ref>For more on the recent trade of black pepper, once againsee: Prabhakaran Nair, became common K. P. 2011. <i>Agronomy and prices depreciated considerably. By this time, middle class consumers were able to reasonably afford it Economy of Black Pepper and it was during the 17 Cardamom: The “king” and 18th centuries that pepper began to emerge as a daily type “queen” of spice used to season meat mainlySpices.</i> 1st ed. Elsevier Insights. Amsterdam ; Boston: Elsevier.</ref>

In the 20th century, with decolonization ==Summary==The history and the demise spread of major holding companies such as the East India Companyblack pepper have been based on trade and access to South Asia, the trade of from ancient to Medieval and more modern periods. Europe and China both had developed a taste for black pepper is once again by the late 1st millennium BCE. It became a spice that became common to many cuisines in the hands of Old World. In the countries that grow it. TodayRoman period, Vietnam is black pepper was a much sought after product by the leading exporter of black Romans from India. The taste for pepperremained in Europe after the Roman period. Still, accounting for about 34-35% much of the total in Medieval period, the control of trade of black pepperroutes by various intermediaries restricted its consumption by only the elite or upper classes. Because of its wide spread use that goes back The Dutch and later British East Indian Company began to the Classical Periodhave more direct control in India, when regions from Japan leading to Britain had developed tastes for a substantial increase in black pepper, trade that also lowered prices and made it has become the most a common condiment or spice today. Today, the trade in black pepper is once again controlled by regions that produce it rather than foreign states.

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