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ArchaeologicallyIn fact, we know that black pepper was used at least by trade and migration of Indo-Aryans in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE likely began to expand black pepper outside of its traditional confines in India. In factIndo-Aryans began to migrate across the Near East and into Europe, although pepper can be found in southeast Asialikely bringing their foods and tastes with them. However, it was probably Indiaarchaeologically and historically, and specifically in the province remains of Kerala, that pepper are very limited. This likely suggests it was most utilized either not very popular or even strictly native totoo expensive for common consumption. For centuriesPepper can be preserved through drying easily enough, suggesting it most likely was not traded very far from preservation that would have been a major hurdle for its places of origin, remaining in India and influencing Indian cuisine to this dayspread. EventuallyHowever, however, we begin it's relatively limited range where it can grow did likely make it more difficult to get archaeological data that suggest pepper made it export to Egypt sometime around some markets.<ref>For more on migration and the 2nd millennium BCE. Traces movement of black pepper have been found on Ramses II, specifically in his nosesee: Sidebotham, suggesting it was used in Steven E. 2011. <i>Berenike and the mummification processAncient Maritime Spice Route.</i> The California World History Library 18. It was likely also used in other parts of the Near East by the 2nd millennium BCE; however, plant remains Berkeley: University of pepper are difficult to detect so this can only be a conjectureCalifornia Press. </ref>
In fact==Spread of Black Pepper==[[File:Black_Pepper_-_Raw.jpeg|thumbnail|left|300px|Black pepper vine with raw peppers]]Trade in black pepper seems to have expanded by the 4th century BCE, reaching the Aegean and Europe more frequently. Black pepper was used as a spice for food, in particular meat. Dried foods such as meat often lacked taste; pepper was seen as a way to make stored foods that were dried or salted more flavorful. This period represented some of the early developments of what would become the Silk Road, suggesting some of the trade in spices such as pepper and migration black pepper specifically would have come via this route. With the conquests of Indo-Europeans Alexander, Greek colonist were now reaching India and contacts became more common. The major turning point, however, was the knowledge of the monsoonal and climate patterns that affected the trade winds along the Indian Ocean by the end of the 1st century BCE. This open up new opportunities for direct sea voyaging between Europe and China via Egypt and the Red Sea, through land and sea routes, although an early version of the Suez Canal had also been developed by the Achaemenid period in the 5th century BCE. The connection via the seas also enabled China to now incorporate black pepper in its culinary diet, at least by the 3rd and 2nd millennium century BCE likely began to expand .<ref>For more on the spread of black pepper outside and the Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade, see: McLaughlin, Raoul. 2014. <i>The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of its traditional confines in Africa, Arabia and India. Indo-Europeans began </i> Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military.</ref> The knowledge of important trade winds, development of major empires stretching across Europe to migrate across China (there were only 4 major states between Britain and China in the Near East 1st century CE), and increased contacts and movement of people in general now made pepper become commonly imported into Roman Europe. The Roman increasingly made pepper part of their diets, likely bringing their foods with themwhile its popularity also spread in the Near East and China. However, archaeologically Traders in Arabia and historically, remains of pepper are very limitedMiddle East probably played important roles as middlemen in the trade network. This not only made them wealthy but they likely suggests it was either not very popular or too expensive for common consumptioncontinued to have a hold of this connection even after the fall of Rome. Both the Silk Road and connections via the Indian Ocean were now vital to this trade. Pepper can be preserved through drying easily enough<ref>For more on the role of middlemen in the Silk Road and the Indian Ocean trade, see: Elisseeff, Vadime, suggesting it was not preservation that would have been a major hurdle for its spreaded. 2000. <i>The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce.</i> New York : Paris: Berghahn Books ; UNESCO Pub.</ref>
Trade By the late Medieval Period, Italian traders from Genoa and Venice increasingly controlled much of the trade in black pepper seems to have expanded by the 4th century BCEin Europe, reaching where the Aegean and price of black pepper in Europe more frequentlyremained very high. This likely meant that it was not as commonly consumed as it may have been even in the Roman period represented some . Despite the high price for black pepper, it was still one of the early developments of what would become most important products in the Silk Road. In fact, suggesting some of it became the chief spice trade in spices the Silk Road. To keep prices artificially high, traders even made stories such as pepper and black pepper specifically would have come via this route. With the conquests of Alexanderbeing guarded by poisonous serpents, Greek colonist were now reaching India and contacts became more commonindicating that it was difficult to get. The major turning point, however, black color was suggested to be a result from the knowledge of the monsoonal and climate patterns fires that affected traders had to make to scare the trade winds along the Indian Ocean by the end of the 1st century BCEserpents away. This open up new opportunities for direct sea voyaging between Europe <ref>For more on Medieval traders in spices and China via Egypt and the Red Seablack pepper, see: Woolgar, C. M, T Waldron, through land and sea routes, although an early version of the Suez Canal had also been developed by the Achaemenid period D Serjeantson. 2009. <i>Food in the 5th century BCEMedieval England: Diet and Nutrition. The connection via the seas also enabled China to now incorporate black pepper in its culinary diet</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, at least by the 2nd century BCEpg. 16. </ref>
The knowledge To a great extent, it was the rise of important trade winds, development prices of major empires stretching across Europe pepper and other products that put greater impetus to China (there were only 4 major states between Britain find new routes to India. Slightly before this time, Portugal was a rising power and China in had aspired to control the 1st century CE)trade routes to India, and increased contacts and movement with black pepper being one of people in general now made pepper become commonly imported into Roman Europetheir main interests. The Roman increasingly made pepper part trip around Africa, although yielding many new discoveries, was difficult and long. Nearly 30% of the cargo brought back from India was lost. European powers wanted to avoid having to have their diets, while its popularity also spread in trade to the Near East east controlled by middlemen and China. Traders in Arabia and Middle East probably played important roles , so long as middle men in prices were very high, then the trade networkconsumer market would be limited. This not only made them wealthy but they likely continued prompted the eventual discovery of the New World, which was initially thought by Christopher Columbus to be a new route to have India, including its spice trade, rather than a hold new continent all together.<ref>For more on the role of this connection even after trade and the fall discovery of Romethe New World, see: Hunter, Doug. Both 2012. <i> The Race to the Silk Road New World: Christopher Columbus, John Cabot, and connections via the Indian Ocean were now vital to this tradea Lost History of Discovery.</i> 1st Palgrave Macmillan pbk. ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref>
==Modern Development==The Dutch were able to gain control of the pepper trade by the 17th century, creating strong links to India, Ceylon, Java, and other areas in southeast Asia (Figure 2). The rising power of the British East India Company in the 18th and 19th centuries, when the British Empire's fortunes increased, allowed them to eventually takeover the trade of black pepper. During this time, spices and pepper, in particular, increasingly began to be under a near monopoly of control by British traders. During the time of the Dutch and British control of the spice and pepper trade, black pepper had increasingly become common that led to its price depreciating considerably.
The role of Arabian By this time, middle class consumers were able to reasonably afford it and Middle Eastern traders continued through it was during the early Medieval period. Increasingly, however, Italian traders from Genoa 17 and Venice became important in the Medieval trade in pepper to Europe. After the disruptions of the fall of Rome, 18th centuries that black pepper only began to make emerge as a comeback in Europe by the later parts daily type of the Medieval periodspice used to season meat and other foods. By then, <ref>For more on the Italian traders controlled much Dutch and their control of ittrade to India and southeast Asia, which meant that the price of black pepper in Europe became very highsee: Jacobs, likely meaning it was not commonly consumed as it may have been even in the Roman periodE. M. 2006. Arab traders also controlled shipping <i>Merchant in Asia: The Trade of the Indian Ocean and trade across the Middle Dutch East, giving them a lot of power in trade activities in India Company during the Silk RoadEighteenth Century. Pepper was one of the most important products in the Silk Road</i> CNWS Publications 146. To keep prices artificially high, traders even made stories such as black pepper being guarded by poisonous serpentsLeiden: CNWS Publications. </ref>
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[[File:Black pepper (By R.Boroujerdi).jpeg|left|300px|thumbnail|Figure 1. Black pepper seeds.]]
Visiting a restaurant in the Western world or even a home often means finding salt and black pepper as common condiments on the table used to give taste to our dishes. Salt has been native to many regions and is commonly found; however, black pepper was a far more limited plant (<i>Piper nigrum</i>) that natively grew in South and Southeast Asia. The spread of this pepper is intertwined with ancient trade expansion that once connected the length of the Old World. In more recent times, this pepper became a fixed a daily condiment.
==Early History==
Archaeologically, we know that black pepper (Figure 1) was used at least by the 4th-3rd millennium BCE in India, although it likely goes even earlier. In fact, although pepper can be found in southeast Asia, it was probably India, and specifically in the province of Kerala, that black pepper was most utilized or native to. For centuries, it most likely was not traded very far from its places of origin, remaining in India and influencing Indian cuisine to this day. Eventually, however, we begin to get archaeological data that suggest pepper made it to Egypt sometime around the 3-2nd millennium BCE. Traces of black pepper have even been found on Ramses II, specifically in his nose, suggesting it was used in the mummification process. It was likely also used in other parts of the Near East by the 3rd millennium BCE; however, plant remains of pepper are difficult to detect so this can only be a conjecture.<ref>For more on the ancient use of black pepper, see: Ravindran, P. N., ed. 2000. <i>Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum.</i> Medicinal and Aromatic Plants--Industrial Profiles, v. 13. Australia: Harwood Academic, pg. 5.</ref>
==Spread of Black PepperLater Development==[[File:Calicut 1572.jpeg|thumbnail|350px|left|Figure 2. Painting from 1572 showing the harbor at Calicut in Malabar, a key export city in the spice trade since late Antiquity.]]The role of Arabian and Middle Eastern traders continued through the early Medieval period. After the disruptions of the fall of Rome, pepper only began to make a comeback in Europe by the later parts of the Medieval period. King Ethelred exacted pepper as a tax to allow European traders in Anglo-Saxon London. Arab traders controlled shipping in the Indian Ocean and trade across the Middle East, giving them a lot of power in trade activities in the Silk Road. <dh-ad/>
In factthe 20th century, it was with decolonization and the rise demise of prices major holding companies such as the British East India Company, the trade of black pepper and other products was once again in the hands of the countries that put greater impetus to find new routes to grew it, mainly being Indiaand southeast Asia. European powers wanted to avoid having to have their Today, Vietnam is the leading exporter of black pepper, accounting for about 34-35% of the total in trade of black pepper. Because of its wide spread use that goes back to the east controlled by Classical Period, when regions from Japan to Britain had developed tastes for black pepper, it has become the Italian and Middle Eastern middlemenmost common spice today. This prompted <ref>For more on the eventual discovery recent trade of the New Worldblack pepper, see: Prabhakaran Nair, which was initially thought by Christopher Columbus to be a new route to India rather than a new continent all togetherK. P. 2011. <i>Agronomy and Economy of Black Pepper and Cardamom: The “king” and “queen” of Spices.</i> 1st ed. Elsevier Insights. Amsterdam ; Boston: Elsevier.</ref>
==Summary==
The history and spread of black pepper has been based on the history of trade and access to south Asia, from ancient to Medieval and more modern periods. Europe and China both had developed a taste for black pepper by the late 1st millennium BCE. It became a spice that became common to many cuisines in the Old World. In the Roman period, black pepper was a much sought after product by the Romans from India. The taste for pepper remained in Europe after the Roman period, but for much of the Medieval period, the control of trade routes by various middlemen restricted its consumption by only elite or upper classes. The Dutch and later British East Indian Company began to have more direct control in India, leading to a substantial increase in trade of black pepper that also lowered prices and made it a common condiment or spice. Today, the trade in black pepper is once again controlled regions that produce it rather than foreign states.
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