Changes

Universities today are a key component for modern states and economies, where the professional classes and academic research are fostered[[File:Raphael School of Athens. We often rate societies by their abilities to produce scientific achievement and develop economic success where universities play a critical role in thisjpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Figure 1. However, the history Depiction of universities was very different and these institutions were first relatively parochial and only in recent times have they become pervasivePlato's Academy. ]]__NOTOC__

Early institutions of higher learning existed long before Universities today are a key component for modern states and economies, where the professional classes and academic research are fostered. We often rate societies by their abilities to produce scientific achievement and develop economic success, where universities were establishedplay a critical role. These early institutions conducted research and taught pupilsHowever, similar to our ideas the history of universities today. Early recordings from Egypt was very different, and Mesopotamia suggest there were not only scholars who conducted research but also these scholars likely taught and were affiliated with institutions of learning. The Ashurbanipal Library and Library at Sippar were collections of knowledge that likely also had students first relatively parochial, and teachers associated with them that taught a select group of individuals who not only learned the complex writen languages of Egypt and Mesopotamia but also began to study and apply their knowledgein recent times have they become pervasive.

==Which Societies created the Precursors to Universities? ==Early institutions of higher learning existed long before universities were established. These early institutions conducted research and taught pupils, similar to our ideas of universities today. Early recordings from Egypt and Mesopotamia suggest some scholars conducted research, and these scholars likely taught and were affiliated with institutions of learning. The Ashurbanipal Library at Nineveh and Library at Sippar were collections of knowledge that likely also had students and teachers associated with them that taught a select group of individuals who learned the complex written languages of their day also began to study and apply their knowledge. <ref>For more on learning in Mesopotamia and Egypt, see: Krebs, Robert E. 2004. Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries through the Ages. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.</ref>====The Platonic Academy of Greece====The first institution that was more fully documented was the Platonic academyAcademy (Figure 1), founded in 387 BCE, and with Aristotle's Peripatetic school was founded in 335 BCEhaving derived from Plato's Academy. These schools generally had a select few pupils and . They were not institutions for mass education. They were seen as privilege for a select few<ref>For more on the early Greek higher education institutions, see: Reale, Giovanni, John R. Catan, and Giovanni Reale. 1990. Plato and Aristotle. A History of Ancient Philosophy, Giovanni Reale ; 2. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press, pg. 149. </ref> Perhaps one of the first truly international institutions of higher education was the Musaeum, an institutions that brought knowledge to it from around the known world. ====The Library of Alexandria====The Library of Alexandria was part of this institution , and it served as a repository for knowledge not just from the Hellenistic world but also accumulated knowledge from Babylonia and Persia that had preceded Greek scholarship. The Musaeum largely functioned like an international university, where students would come to be educated by the best teachers. The Ptolemaic state was tolerant to scholarship and allowed individuals from many regions to come to Alexandria to be involved in this institution.<ref>For more on the Musaeum and Library at Alexandria, see: MacLeod, Roy M., ed. 2000. The Library of Alexandria: Centre of Learning in the Ancient World. London ; New York : New York: I.B. Tauris ; In the U.S.A. and Canada distributed by St. Martin’s Press.</ref>====Creation of Universitie in India====In the ancient world, several regions developed traditions of scholarship. In the Indian subcontinent, Pushpagiri and Nalanda were two well-known centers of higher education. These institutions were devoted to Buddhist teaching and trained individuals in arts, medicine, mathematics, and astronomy. Even politics, or something comparable to political science, or political theory, was taught at these academies. Earlier Hindu higher learning centers, such as Taxilia, also inducted students. This place became associated with one of the earliest economic treatises known to us, a text call the Arthashastra, which also discussed other topics, such as political statecraft.<ref>For more on India's higher education ancient tradition, see: Mookerji, Radhakumud. 1989. Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.</ref>====The Chinese Imperial Training System====China had developed an imperial academy to train bureaucrats during the Han dynasty in Taixue by the 1st century CE. While earlier academies were more akin to private institutions, the Chinese imperial training system became more similar to public education. The school seemed to recruit students nationwide, and admission was based on skills and accolades, demonstrating that higher education had become a form of social mobility and mass education. Up to 30,000 students may have attended the academy at a given time. Later in the 1st millennium CE, the school began to develop an examination system that evaluated its enrolled classes.<ref>For more on China's early higher education and imperial academy, see: Becker, Jasper. 2000. The Chinese. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 8.</ref>====The Persian Medical academy - Gundishapur====In ancient Persia, during the Sasanid dynasty around the 3rd century CE, Gundishapur functioned as a medical training and higher education academy. This academy continued to function for some time after the arrival of Islam. It became one of the key influences and foundations for Islamic higher education that succeed it.<ref>For more on Gundishapur, see: Esposito, John L., ed. 1999. The Oxford History of Islam. New York, N.Y: Oxford University Press, pg. 742.</ref>====Higher education in Rome and the Middle Ages====In Europe, during the Roman and later Antiquity period, scholarship continued to follow the Greeks' Platonic tradition. However, these institutions were closed by the 6th century CE due to their association with pagan practices and philosophies. With the fall of the Roman Empire, scholarship became confined to isolated monasteries. These monasteries trained individuals in learning, mostly those who became priests or monks and began to document some of the Greek and other knowledge from the past.<ref>For a history of early Medieval European learning, see: Kleinhenz, Christopher, ed. 2004. Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. The Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages. New York: Routledge, pg. 314.</ref>

In ==When were the ancient worldfirst Early Universities created? ==[[File:Merton College, several regions developed traditions of scholarshipOxford (3916021906).jpg|thumbnail|left|Figure 2. In the Indian subcontinentMerton College in Oxford, Pushpagiri one of Oxford's oldest colleges and Nalanda were two well known centers of higher educationresidences.. These institutions were devoted to Buddhist teaching but also trained individuals ]]The first true university, an institution called such, was founded in artsBologna, medicine, mathematicsItaly, in 1088. The Latin phrase <i>universitas magistrorum et scholarium</i> indicated an association of teachers and astronomyscholars. Even politicsAt this early date, universities were more of an association or something comparable to political science, in essence political theorya guild for learning particular crafts. In the case of Bologna, the focus was law. The emphasis was taught on training students for more developed skills within a particular profession to serve and develop those skills at these academiesmore professional levels. Earlier Hindu tradition Oxford, the second oldest university and higher learningoldest English speaking university, was probably sometime late in the 11th century. Traditions such as Taxiliahaving a chancellor and residence halls had become established by the 13th century. Oxford had established its oldest colleges, also inducted studentsBalliol and Merton Colleges, by the mid 13th century (Figure 2). This place became associated with one of <ref>For more on the earlier economic treatises known to usearly universities, see: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, a text call ed. 1992. Universities in the Middle Ages. A History of the ArthashastraUniversity in Europe, which also discussed other topics as well, such as political statecraftv. 1. Cambridge [England] ; New York: Cambridge University Press. </ref>

In ancient PersiaThe early universities, during such as Paris, later became the Sorbonne, derived from the monastic or cathedral learning schools that had continued into the early Medieval era after the fall of the Roman Empire. Thus, these early universities were closely affiliated with the Sasanid dynasty at around 3rd century CECatholic church, Gundishapur functioned as a medical training although education began to be broad and higher offered important skills outside of religious education academy. This academy continued to function for some time after Despite the arrival religious association of Islam schools, they also developed to be independent and became one of sometimes trained individuals who would come into conflict with the church.<ref>For more on the key influences Church's role in universities, see: Ellis, John Tracy. 1989. Faith and foundations for Islamic higher education that succeed itLearning: A Church Historian’s Story. Melville Studies in Church History, v. 1. Lanham, MD : [Washington, D.C.]: University Press of America ; Dept. of Church History, Catholic University of America.</ref>

In Europe, during A key development occurred in the founding of the Roman and later Antiquity periodUniversity of Naples, scholarship continued founded in 1224. It was founded as a public institution dedicated to follow a king rather than the pope or Catholic church. Some see this as the Platonic tradition established by beginning of developing the Greeksconcept of secular education, although virtually all higher education institutions had religious curriculum as part of their broader education. HoweverIn Germany, these institutions were closed by the 6th century CEwhere many cities developed very independent traditions, due to their association with pagan practices we see municipalities and philosophiesmunicipal governments being active in universities' founding. With This is the fall case with the University of the Roman EmpireCologne, scholarship became confined to isolated monasteriesfounded in 1388. These monasteries trained individuals in learning<ref>For more on public universities' development, mostly those who became priests or monkssee: Nicholas, and began to document some David. 1992. The Evolution of the Greek Medieval World: Society, Government, and other knowledge from the pastThought in Europe, 312-1500. London ; New York: Longman.</ref>

==Early When were the Modern UniversitiesEstablished? ==By the late Medieval and Early Modern Period, the number of universities began to grow rapidly in Europe, whereby in the 18th century, there were probably around 143 universities. This does not include other forms of higher education institutions that did not call themselves universities, such as academies. The University of Paris began to develop the idea of faculties that differentiated areas of study. The topics of focus that began to develop in universities were philosophy. The traditional title for PhDs is philosophy, medicine, logic, theology, law, mathematics, astronomy, and grammar. These branches of study were seen to be related to a humanistic perspective, as many required translation of ancient works in addition to a focus on the discipline.<ref>For more on the early modern universities, see: Kirwan, Richard, and Jonathan Davies. 2013. Scholarly Self-Fashioning and Community in the Early Modern University. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate.</ref>

The first true universityEarly universities were rigid and heavily influenced by Aristotle's notion of the sciences and learning. However, that is an institution called as such, was founded in Bologna, Italy in 1088scholars began to experiment with new ways of learning and experimentation. The Latin phrase <i>universitas magistrorum et scholarium</i> indicated an association Disciplines began to break away from a heavy influence of teachers and scholarshumanistic influences. The focus for This led to the University divergent development of Bologna was lawthe sciences from the humanities within an education system. Early By the 18th century, universities such as Bologna were essentially similar also began developing research journals, encouraging scholars to Medieval guilds that trained individuals for special skillspublish and circulate their findings with other scholars. OxfordIn Germany, Wilhelm von Humboldt developed ideas of academic freedom, seminars, the second oldest university and oldest English speaking university, was founded probably sometime late in the 11th century. Traditions such laboratories as having a chancellor way for universities to foster debate, knowledge, and residence halls had become established by the 13th centurynew scientific inquiry. Oxford had established its oldest colleges<ref>For more on Humboldt's developments, see: The University according to Humboldt: History, Policy, Balliol and Merton CollegesFuture Possibilities. 2015. 1st edition. New York, by the mid 13th centuryNY: Springer Science+Business Media. </ref>

The early universities, such as Paris which later became During the Sorbonne19th century, derived from public universities available to the monastic or also cathedral learning schools that had continued into the early Medieval era after masses became more widespread. Only in the fall 19th century did religion become less of an important focus in the Roman Empirecurriculum. These early This gradually made universities were thus closely affiliated with secular higher education institutions. With the Catholic churchdevelopment of the Industrial Revolution, although education many universities began to focus more on the sciences as industrialization began to be broad and offered important skills outside develop as a form of competition between the Western world. In Britain, the concept of religious the civic university was seen as an engine for developing a secular, economic potential that used the masses by giving them access to education. Despite <ref>For more on the religious association development of schoolsmass education in the 19th century, they also developed to be independent see: Brockliss, L. W. B, and Nicola Sheldon. 2012. Mass Education and sometimes trained individuals who would come into conflict with the churchLimits of State Building, C. 1870-1930. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref>

A key development occurred in The British Empire and later other European empires began to transplant the European education model around the world. While the founding United States began to adopt some of the University German models for a research university, much of the rest of Naplesthe world also was instilled with European concepts. These then became pervasive and entrenched within countries such that when colonial powers diminished in the 20th century, the university systems they either founded or had fostered as educational models were largely kept in 1224, as it was founded places such as a public institution dedicated by a king rather than the pope or Catholic church. In GermanyIndia, where many cities developed very independent traditionsKenya, we see municipalities and municipal government being active in the founding Middle East.<ref>For more on the British model and spread of universitiesduring the period of European empires, see: Pietsch, Tamson. This is the case with 2015. Empire of Scholars: Universities, Networks and the British Academic World, 1850-1939. Manchester: Manchester University of Cologne, founded in 1388Press.</ref>

==The Modern UniversityConclusion==By the late Medieval and Early Modern Period, the number of Today's universities began to grow rapidly in Europe, where by the 18th century there were probably around 143 have diversified further. Private universitiesthat have a business-like or for-profit model has been one prominent model developed recently. This does not include other forms of higher institutions that did not call themselves Intergovernmental and universities, such as academies. The University of Paris began built by countries in foreign places have been created to develop the idea of faculties promote ideas or training that differentiated areas of study. The topics of focus that began is similar to develop what one might obtain in the home countries. This has spread many similar universities were philosophyworldwide, where still the traditional title for PhDs is doctor of philosophy, medicine, logic, theology, law, mathematics, astronomy, countries with very different cultures and grammartraditions now have relatively similar universities' ideas. These branches of study were seen to be related to This has also become a humanistic perspective, as many required translation of ancient works way in addition which countries now see universities to a focus on compete in the disciplineglobal marketplace, as they train their masses and develop their economic competitiveness.

Early We see then that higher education changed conceptually from restricted academic institutions to the foundation of universities were rigid and heavily influenced by Aristotle's notion of , which proved to be similar to guilds in the Medieval period. It was only in the sciences late Medieval and learning. However, scholars Early Modern eras that universities began to experiment with new ways of learning spread more rapidly, and experimentation. Disciplines began to break away from a heavy influence of humanistic influencesin the 19th century, these institutions became fully secular. This led to the eventually very divergent development secularization, and later acceptance of women, helped the sciences from the humanities. By masses to enroll in universities during the 18th 19th century, universities also began developing research journals. In Germany, Wilhelm von Humboldt developed ideas The concept of academic freedom, seminars, and laboratories mass education became established as industrialization became a way key for universities to foster debate, knowledge, countries' economic success and new scientific inquirypower.

During the 19th century, public universities available for the masses became more widespread. It was only in the 19th century that religion began to become less of an important focus in the curriculum. This gradually made universities secular higher education institutions and, with the development of the Industrial Revolution, many universities began to more greatly focus on the sciences as it industrialization began to develop as a form of competition between the Western world. In Britain, the concept of the civic university was seen as an engine for developing a secular, economic potential that used the masses by giving them access to education.  The British Empire and later other European Empires began to transplant the European model of education around the world. While the United States began to adopt some of the German model for a research university, much of the rest of the world also was instilled with European concepts. These then became pervasive and entrenched within countries such that when colonial powers diminished in the 20th century, the university systems they either founded or had fostered as educational models were largely kept in places such as India, Kenya, and in the Middle East. ==ConclusionReferences==<references/>

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