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[[File:portraitbowie.jpg|thumbnail|200pxleft|250px|Portrait of Jim Bowie, circa 1820.]]Directly or indirectly, James Bowie’s (aka Jim Bowie’s ) enigmatic illness during the siege of the Alamo resulted from his own actions. A hearty man of six feet in height, Bowie was a walking contradiction; a slave trader who fought for freedom, a generous and congenial man who called out had his thunderous temper on a whim, and a commanding leader who was prone to binges of sloppy drunkenness. He was determined in his actions and proceeded through life with an indestructible will, yet found himself bed-ridden as he took his last breath. Many suppositions have been made as to the cause of his infirm, including typhoid fever, pulmonary consumption, and traumatic injury. Other possibilities will be proposed in this text and will all lead to the conclusion that by indirect association or direct action, Jim Bowie contributed to his own demise.

Many suppositions have been made as to the cause of his infirm, including typhoid fever, pulmonary consumption, and traumatic injury. Other possibilities will be proposed in this text and will all lead to the conclusion that by indirect association or direct action, Jim Bowie contributed to his demise. == Exposure to Yellow Fever What happened during Jim Bowie's Life? ==

[[File:yellowfevermound.jpg|thumbnail|250px350px|left|Memorial to Louisiana yellow fever victims buried in a mass grave.]] African men and women possessed a higher immunity to mosquito-borne illnesses than whites due to exposure over time. Trafficking slaves into the United States exposed Anglo-Americans to infected mosquitoes that were transported along with slaves on filthy, wooden ships. Africans living in the West Indies proved resistant to these types of illnesses, especially yellow fever, as in evident in statistics reported from St. James, Jamaica between 1817 and 1820 showing that the largest number of Africans died of “old age”.<ref>B.W. Higman, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00AEVJQCS/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B00AEVJQCS&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c80097538a181200eaf41eaf4dde018b Slave Population and Economy in Jamaica, 1807-1834]'' (University of the Indies Press, 1995), 112.</ref>Dealing directly with pirated slaves and the surrounding unsanitary conditions put Bowie at a higher risk of coming into contact with an infected mosquito; the only way in which one can contract yellow fever. Consequentially, Jim Bowie participated in and enabled the onset of one potential cause of his illness. Until October 1833, Bowie's life continued unabated, but tragedy struck. While in Natchez he learned the news that his wife had passed away due to cholera. This occurred just days after he himself recovered from a bout with yellow fever.<ref>Davis, 361-362.</ref> According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), once having recovered from yellow fever one is usually protected against subsequent infection. This, however, is under ideal circumstances wherein the individual is in optimal physical condition. Alcohol and malnutrition impede the immunity process.<ref>Valerie Carter, RN, BSN, MSN, interview by author, Phoenix, Arizona, April 15, 2010. It has been historically documented that Bowie consumed a great deal of alcohol. Also, malnutrition must be distinguished from under-nutrition in that an individual may be consuming substantial calories that lack nutritional value.</ref> Bowie was not only complicit in transporting infected mosquitoes into North America, he also counteracted his own recovery with his lifestyle choices. == Was Jim Bowie an alcoholic? ==By several accounts, Jim Bowie was an alcoholic. Anson Jones, a physician who would later become the fourth and final President of the Republic of Texas, had the experience of meeting Bowie and Sam Houston while the two were in consultation at San Felipe. Jones found Houston to be the rowdy leader while he found Bowie “dead drunk.” <ref>Anson Jones, ''Memorandum and Official Correspondence Relating to the Republic of Texas, Its History and Annexation'' (New York: 1859), 12-13.</ref> The reasons for Bowie’s alcohol abuses have yet to be determined. He undoubtedly suffered from physical pain resulting from him skirmishes and battles that included gunshot wounds. Depression is another possible explanation for his over-indulgences due to the loss of his wife and child to cholera in 1833. Regardless of why he drank, he continued to do so at an accelerated rate.

African men and women possessed a higher immunity to mosquito-borne illnesses than whites due to exposure over time[[File:William_b_travis.JPG|thumbnail|300px|left|Colonel William Travis. Painting by Henry McArdle. Trafficking slaves into ]]Neither Colonel William Travis nor confinement at the United States exposed Anglo-Americans to infected mosquitoes that were transported along with slaves on filthyAlamo complex quelled Bowie’s drinking. Travis, wooden ships. Africans living in commanding the West Indies proved resistant to these types of illnesses, especially yellow feverregular army, was soon pitted against Bowie in a dispute as to which man would lead the forces in evident in statistics reported from StBejar. JamesThe volunteer army, Jamaica between 1817 and 1820 showing that the largest number of Africans died untrusting of “old age”.<ref>B.W. HigmanTravis’ official authority, ''[https://wwwinstinctively followed Bowie’s directives.amazon.com/gp/product/B00AEVJQCS/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B00AEVJQCS&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c80097538a181200eaf41eaf4dde018b Slave Population and Economy in JamaicaTrying to placate all those concerned, 1807-1834]'' (University of Travis ordered an election to choose either Travis or Bowie to lead the Indies Press, 1995), 112troops.</ref>Dealing directly with pirated slaves and the surrounding unsanitary conditions The result put Bowie at a higher risk in command of coming into contact with an infected mosquito; the only way in which one can contract yellow fever.<ref>CDC, " Yellow Fever” http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/yellowfever/YF_Transmission.html (accessed May 1, 2010).</ref>Consequentially, Jim Bowie participated in volunteers and enabled Travis maintained control of the onset of one potential cause of his illnessformal troops.

In a letter from Travis to Texas governor Henry Smith, he complained that “since his election” Bowie continued on as usual until his life was sadly disrupted. October 1833 was perhaps has been “roaring drunk all the most devastating time of his life. While in Natchez he learned the news that his wife had passed away due to cholera. This occurred just days after he himself recovered from a bout with yellow fever.” <ref>DavisTravis to Henry Smith, Bejar, February 13, 1836, in ''Official Correspondence of the Texan Revolution, 3611835-3621836'', ed. William C.</ref> According to the Centers for Disease Control Binkley (CDCNew York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936), once having recovered from yellow fever one is usually protected against subsequent infection1:419-420. ThisTravis continues in the letter with descriptions of Bowie acting in a disorderly fashion, howeverdestroying property, is under ideal circumstances wherein the individual is in optimal physical condition. Alcohol and malnutrition impede the immunity processreleasing incarcerated prisoners.</ref>Valerie Carter, RN, BSN, MSN, interview by author, Phoenix, Arizona, April 15, 2010Travis was a traditional army officer with formal training while Bowie was becoming increasingly unmanageable.It has been historically documented Colonel Travis concluded that his larger-than-life counterpart could not be restrained. Travis resolved to let Bowie consumed a great deal continue and was not responsible "for the drunken irregularities of alcoholany man. Also” <ref>Travis to Smith, malnutrition must be distinguished from under-nutrition in that an individual may be consuming substantial calories that lack nutritional value420.</ref>Bowie was not only complicit in transporting infected mosquitoes into North America, he also counteracted his own recovery with his lifestyle choices.

== Bowie and Booze ==Jim Bowie had a penchant for alcohol to Acting irrationally from the extent time of what we now call, "alcohol abuse." Anson Jones, a physician who would later become the fourth and final President of informal election until the Republic of Texassiege began, had the experience of meeting Bowie and Sam Houston while the two were remained in consultation at San Felipea drunken or confused state. Jones found Houston to be Rowdiness ensued when he began releasing Mexican prisoners and stopping “carts laden with the rowdy leader while he found Bowie “dead drunk”good of private families”.<ref>Anson JonesJ.J. Baugh to Henry Smith, Bejar, February 13, 1836, in ''Memorandum and Official Correspondence Relating to of the Republic of Texas, Its History and AnnexationTexan Revolution 1835-1836'' , ed. William C. Binkley (New York: 1859D. Appleton-Century, 1936), 121:421-13422. J.J. Baugh was Adjunct to the Post of Bejar.</ref> The reasons for Bowie’s alcohol abuses have yet to be determinedTo harass ordinary citizens was uncharacteristic of Bowie. He undoubtedly suffered from physical pain resulting from him skirmishes and battles These actions strongly suggest that included gunshot wounds. Depression is another possible explanation for his over-indulgences due to the loss of his wife Bowie was not only drunk but was acting irrationally and child to cholera in 1833. Regardless out of why he drank, he continued to do so at an accelerated rate.[[File:William_b_travis.JPG|thumbnail|200px|Colonel William Travis. Painting by Henry McArdlecharacter.]]

Neither Colonel William Travis nor confinement at the Alamo complex quelled Bowie’s drinking. TravisAlthough he remained literate, commanding the regular army, was soon pitted against his decision-making abilities were compromised and Bowie in a dispute had been described as to which man would lead the forces in Bejar. The volunteer army, untrusting of Travis’ official authority, instinctively followed Bowie’s directives. Trying to placate all those concerned, Travis ordered an election to choose either Travis confused or Bowie to lead the troops. The result put Bowie in command of the volunteers and Travis maintained control of the formal troops. In a letter from Travis to Texas governor Henry Smithdisoriented, he complained which are symptoms that “since his election” Bowie has been “roaring drunk all the time”present in end-stage yellow fever.<ref>Travis to Henry SmithCDC, Bejar, February 13, 1836, in ''Official Correspondence of the Texan Revolution, 1835-1836Yellow Fever.'', ed. William C. Binkley (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936), 1:419-420. Travis continues in the letter with descriptions of Bowie acting in a disorderly fashion, destroying property, and releasing incarcerated prisoners.</ref>Travis was a traditional army officer with formal training while Conversely, Bowie continued his irregular behaviorsremained physically active and there are no records of him showing overt signs of physical illness at this time. Colonel Travis came to the conclusion that his larger-than-life counterpart was not to be restrained and thusBy most accounts, resolved to let Bowie continue but shunned responsibility "for arrived inside the drunken irregularities of any man”Alamo compound without illness.<ref>Travis to SmithSigns and symptoms; however, 420may not present until the disease is well advanced.</ref>

Acting irrationally from == Was the Alamo well stocked with medicine before the time Seige? ==[[File:battlealamo.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Battle of the informal election until Alamo as depicted in the siege beganSaturday Evening Post, 1836.]]Doctor Amos Pollard, Bowie remained who was present at the hospital in a drunken or confused state. Rowdiness ensued when Bejar, wrote to Governor Smith that he began releasing Mexican prisoners was “nearly destitute of medicine” and stopping “carts laden with continued to say he could be “of very little use to the good of private families”sick” were an attack to occur.<ref>J.J. Baugh Amos Pollard to Henry Smith, Bejar, February 13, 1836, in ''Official Correspondence of the Texan Revolution , 1835-1836,'', ed. William C. Binkley (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936), 1:421-422. J.J. Baugh was Adjunct to the Post of Bejar423.</ref> To harass ordinary citizens was uncharacteristic Lack of medicine combined with the lack of Bowienutritious food and [[How did Public Sanitation Develop?|poor sanitary conditions]] created an ideal environment for disease to thrive. These actions strongly suggest that Bowie was not only drunk A water-well in the center of the Alamo courtyard did provide fresh water but was acting irrationally and out of characteralso a breeding ground for mosquitoes. Although he remained literate, his decision making abilities were compromised and It is possible that Bowie had been described as confused or disoriented, which are symptoms that present in end-stage contracted yellow fever.<ref>CDC, ''Yellow Fever.''</ref>Conversely, Bowie remained physically active and there are no records of him showing overt signs of physical illness at this for a second time. By most accounts, Bowie arrived inside the Alamo compound without illness. Signs and symptoms; however, may if he did not present until fully recover from his first bout with the disease is well advanced.

== Accounts of Death ==[[File:bowieinbed.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Depiction of Jim Bowie fighting at the Alamo from his death bed. Painting by Charles A. Stephens, 1898.]]Andrea Castanon de Villanueva, more commonly known as Madam Candelaria, gave several different accounts as a witness to the siege at the Alamo. They all conflict as to the manner in which Bowie was killed, but concur as to the symptoms of his illness. Descriptions of Bowie's condition by other witnesses concur with Candelaria's account of him having shortness of breath, a continued cough, rapid pulse and fever, and the loss of "considerable flesh."<ref>Maurice Elfer, ''Madam Candelaria: Unsung Heroine of the Alamo'' (Houston: Rein, 1933),9.</ref> It must be noted; however, that the credibility of Candelaria must be closely scrutinized as she had no medical or nursing background and often contradicted herself in interviews. In an 1890 interview she was convinced he was "very ill of typhoid fever," while in an interview from 1899, she stated that Bowie was "afflicted with consumption."<ref>Bill Groneman, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1556228465/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1556228465&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0cdh-20&linkId=f25e7db795530fa1ef53bfc5b9faefc1 Eyewitness to the Alamo],'' (Plano: Taylor Trade Publishing, 1996), 107. Generally, there are no respiratory symptoms associated with typhoid fever.</ref> <ref>Groneman, 122. Pulmonary consumption was a term used in the 19th century for what is currently known as tuberculosis.</ref>Henderson Yoakum, a prominent lawyer, historian, and congressional representative from Texas, made a strong argument refuting Candelaria’s claim to having been Bowie’s nurse. In a letter dated January 8, 1870, to an unknown recipient, Yoakum argues that Juana Alsbury nursed Bowie at the Alamo and that Madam Candelaria was not even present at the time of the siege.<ref>Henderson Yoakum, “The McArdle Notebooks”, (Austin, Texas State Library), 29. Yoakum deduces that Mrs. Alsbury would have been the choice to nurse Bowie as she was the niece of former governor Veramendi and Bowie’s sister-in-law. The note claims that Alsbury was not aware of another woman nursing Bowie.<ad/ref>

Conflicting evidence is not new to the story of == How did Bowie Die at the Alamo ? ==Andrea Castanon de Villanueva, more commonly known as myths and legends have been abundant since March 6, 1836Madam Candelaria, gave several different accounts as a witness to the day Santa Anna's troops toppled siege at the Alamo and slaughtered its defenders. One that was once believed They all conflict as to be fact, the manner in which has since been refuted by historians, is that Bowie fell from a parapet resulting in an injury that caused his physical decline. Medically this was possible if killed but concur as to the symptoms of his injury resulted in a pulmonary embolismillness. Emboli are often the result Descriptions of a blood clot traveling from the leg to the lungs; however, they can also develop from a fatty deposit dislodging from a broken bone. If Bowie had in fact fallen from such a height, a fracture 's condition by other witnesses concur with Candelaria's account of one of his ribs, or any bone, was highly probable. Untreated emboli are fatal and the symptoms, which include him having shortness of breath, chest paina continued cough, rapid pulse and a bloody coughfever, present themselves with sudden onsetand the loss of "considerable flesh."<ref>CarterMaurice Elfer, Interview''Madam Candelaria: Unsung Heroine of the Alamo'' (Houston: Rein, 1933),9.</ref> All of these elements fit It must be noted; however, that the description credibility of Bowie’s illness yet there has not been documentation found to substantiate him having fallenCandelaria must be closely scrutinized as she had no medical or nursing background and often contradicted herself in interviews. The only documented and undisputed testimony is In an 1890 interview she was convinced he was "very ill of typhoid fever," while in an interview from 1899, she stated that Bowie was bed"afflicted with consumption."<ref>Bill Groneman, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1556228465/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1556228465&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-ridden at 20&linkId=f25e7db795530fa1ef53bfc5b9faefc1 Eyewitness to the time Alamo],'' (Plano: Taylor Trade Publishing, 1996), 107.</ref> [[File:bowieinbed.jpg|thumbnail|200px|left|Depiction of the assault on Jim Bowie fighting at the Alamofrom his death bed. Painting by Charles A. Stephens, 1898.]]

All of Bowie's so-called nurses agreed that he Generally, there are no respiratory symptoms associated with typhoid fever. <ref>Groneman, 122. Pulmonary consumption was bedridden at the time of the siege, yet a soldier with Santa Anna's army denied seeing Bowie or anyone else term used in bed when the Mexican army stormed the compound19th century for what is currently known as tuberculosis. In his diary</ref> Henderson Yoakum, ''With Santa Anna in Texasa prominent lawyer,''Jose Enrique de la Pena vividly describes the scene on the morning of March 6historian, 1836 as one of blood confusion and unfathomable carnagecongressional representative from Texas made a strong argument refuting Candelaria’s claim to having been Bowie’s nurse. According In a letter dated January 8, 1870, to de la Penaan unknown recipient, Travis did Yoakum argues that Juana Alsbury nursed Bowie at the Alamo and that Madam Candelaria was not withdraw when even present at the Mexican troops scaled the walls time of the fortress, rather he died fighting. He described the others as "terrified defenders" who " withdrew" and " bolted and reinforced the doorssiege."<ref>Jose Enrique de la PenaHenderson Yoakum, ''With Santa Anna in Mexico“The McArdle Notebooks,'' Carmen Perry” (Austin, ed. and trans. (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 1975State Library), 50-5129.</ref>Yoakum deduced that Mrs. Alsbury would have been the choice to nurse Bowie as she was the niece of former governor Veramendi and Bowie’s sister-in-law. The note claims that Alsbury was not aware of another woman nursing Bowie.

Conflicting evidence is not new to the story of the Alamo as myths and legends have been abundant since March 6, 1836, the day Santa Anna's troops toppled the Alamo and slaughtered its defenders. One that was once believed to be fact, which has since been refuted by historians, is that Bowie fell from a parapet resulting in an injury that caused his physical decline. Medically this was possible if his injury resulted in a pulmonary embolism. Emboli are often the result of a blood clot traveling from the leg to the lungs; however, they can also develop from a fatty deposit dislodging from a broken bone. If Bowie had fallen from such a height, a fracture of one of his ribs, or any bone, was highly probable. Untreated emboli are fatal and the symptoms, which include shortness of breath, chest pain, and a bloody cough, present themselves with sudden onset.<ref>Carter, Interview.</ref> All of these elements fit the description of Bowie’s illness, yet there has not been documentation found to substantiate him having fallen. The only documented and undisputed testimony is that Bowie was bed-ridden at the time of the assault on the Alamo. All of Bowie's so-called nurses agreed that he was bedridden at the time of the siege, yet a soldier with Santa Anna's army denied seeing Bowie or anyone else in bed when the Mexican army stormed the compound. In his diary, ''With Santa Anna in Texas,'' Jose Enrique de la Pena vividly describes the scene on the morning of March 6, 1836, as one of bloody confusion and unfathomable carnage. According to de la Pena, Travis did not withdraw when the Mexican troops scaled the walls of the fortress; rather he died fighting. He described the others as "terrified defenders" who " withdrew" and "bolted and reinforced the doors."<ref>Jose Enrique de la Pena, ''With Santa Anna in Mexico,'' Carmen Perry, ed. and trans. (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 1975), 50-51.</ref> == The Most Probable Cause Why was Jim Bowie sick during the Seige of the Alamo? ==[[File:Bourbon-bottle_from_Gettysburg.jpeg|left|thumbnail|200px|19th century bourbon bottle.]]Jim Bowie, due to his excessive drinking and fearless bold actions, essentially harmed himself to the point that death was imminent regardless of the events that transpired that March morning in San Antonio. Alcohol abuse causes many detrimental effects on the human body, not least of which is cardiomyopathy.<ref>An enlargement of the heart causing it to no longer function properly.</ref> Another serious complication that has been overlooked by historians, is that of alcoholic pneumonia. This is a condition wherein an individual drinks to the point of unconsciousness and regurgitates the contents of the stomach into the lungs.  Once the foreign matter is introduced, the sacs in the lungs inflame due to the excessive amount of white blood cells present trying to rid the body of the invasive substance. Resulting from this physiological phenomenon is the presence of fluid in the lungs known as pneumonia. Untreated, pneumonia can be fatal and produce such symptoms as a bloody cough, debilitating weakness, fever, chills, and shortness of breath.<ref>Carter, Interview.</ref> Given Bowie’s alcoholic tendencies and documented history as a binge drinker, this diagnosis is highly plausible if not probable.

==== Conclusion ====If one wishes to remember Bowie as a tragic hero falling from a parapet and contracting tuberculosis, there is a very slight chance that this occurred. In describing consumption in 1799, Dr. Thomas Beddoes stated, “We have seen how often external injury produces the disease”.<ref>Thomas Beddoes, ''Essay on the causes, early signs, and prevention of pulmonary consumption…'' (Bristol, 1799), 62.</ref>Advancements in science, however, have given us the informative educational tools to further Dr. Beddoes' research and question whether he was describing pulmonary consumption or a pulmonary embolism.

Death was inevitable for Bowie, whether at the hands of the Mexican army or his own. The abuses he inflicted on his body produce would have a shortened life-span, even in today’s technologically advance advanced society. Frontier medicine of the 19th century was rudimentary and often times unattainable. Had Bowie received care in March of 1836 he would not have recovered to the extent possible due to his alcohol consumption. By participating in the illegal slave-trade of post-1808 North America, he indirectly enabled disease -ridden insects access to the continent. Slavery was not practiced in Mexico, yet slaves were present at the Alamo compound because of men like Bowie. Stagnant water was on hand due to the well inside the fortress. The preponderance of evidence suggests yellow fever as being the nature of Jim Bowie’s illness but alcoholic pneumonia needs further investigation as Bowie was a prime candidate for such an affliction. Other possibilities exist but due to Santa Anna’s choice to cremate the dead bodies found on the morning of March 6, 1836, no definitive conclusion can be drawn. Death took Jim Bowie in the same manner in which he approached life; fearlessly and without doubt.

Slavery was not practiced in Mexico, yet slaves were present at the Alamo compound because of men like Bowie. Stagnant water was on hand due to the well inside the fortress. The preponderance of evidence suggests yellow fever as being the nature of Jim Bowie’s illness but alcoholic pneumonia needs further investigation as Bowie was a prime candidate for such an affliction. Other possibilities exist but due to Santa Anna’s choice to cremate the dead bodies found on the morning of March 6, 1836, no definitive conclusion can be drawn. Death took Jim Bowie in the same manner in which he approached life; fearlessly and without a doubt. <div class="portal" style="width:85%;">====Related DailyHistory.org Articles====*[[The Best Historians and Books According to James McPherson]]*[[What Was the Significance of the Southwest in the Outcome of the Civil War]]*[[What are the "Six Flags" that have Flown over Texas?]]*[[Why Was Vicksburg “The Gibraltar of the Confederacy?”]]*[[Were Members of the Underground Railroad Criminals?]]</div> ====References====