Introduction__NOTOC__This article will discuss the response of [[File: Stalin and Ribbentrop.jpg|thumbnail|230px|left|Stalin and Ribbentrop after signing pact 1939.]]Joseph Stalin reacted extremely slowly to the invasion of his country by German forces in 1940. The Soviet leader will be shown to have responded very Indeed, not only did he react slowly to the Nazi invasion and indeed that , but he also ignored warnings that the Germans planned to attack his country. Stalin's response to the Nazi invasion has perplexed historians for many years. It seems that the Soviet Leader had placed his trust in Hitler and this almost led to the defeat of the Soviet Union. The article will show that Stalin's response to Hitler's invasion was slow and disorganized especially in the first days of the war. Stalin's response was so slow and ineffective because he had made the fatal mistake of trusting Hitler. However, Stalin was to take charge of the situation and he made changes to his military and diplomatic policy that at first slowed the German advance and then stopped it before Moscow in December 1941.
Background
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin ruled over the Soviet Union between 1920 and 1953 acting as the supreme leader of the USSR. Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he was effectively the dictator of the state. Stalin introduced his own highly centralized command economy, launching a period of industrialization and collectivization that resulted in the rapid transformation of the USSR from an agrarian society into an industrial global power. Between 1934 and 1939 Stalin mercilessly carried out a series of massive political extra-judicial executions, known as the Great Purge, of major Communist Party and government rival figures as well as many Red Army high commanders without any proper trials - all convicted of alleged treason or considered a threat. These “enemies of the working class” were imprisoned, exiled, sent to forced labor camps or executed, without due process.In the meantime, Germany revitalized under Adolf Hitler’s leadership, worked to revise the post-World War I organizational structure of Europe, imposed by the United States, England, and France. Hitler and Stalin seemed to be natural enemies. Hitler loathed the Communists and Stalin publically denounced the Nazis. The two regimes were ideological enemies and it seemed to many observers that a war between the two was inevitable at some stage.
==Reaching the Molotov–Ribbentrop Non-Aggression Pact between the USSR and NAZI Germany and their initial warming economic relationsBackground==After [[How Joseph Stalin became the leader of the Nazis rose to power in Germany in 1933, relations between Germany and Soviet Union|Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin]] ruled over the Soviet Union, between 1920 and 1953 acting as the two sworn enemy regimes, began to deteriorate rapidly, and trade between supreme leader of the two countries decreased and almost frozeUSSR. The Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union had generally good relations with , he was effectively the Weimar Republic. Following several years dictator of tension and rivalry, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union eventually began to improve relations in 1939state. German Stalin introduced his own highly centralized command economy thrived at , launching a fast pace by exporting manufactured goods period of industrialization and industrial equipment collectivization that resulted in exchange for importing raw materials. In turn, the rapid transformation of the USSR being from an agrarian statesociety into an industrial global power. Between 1934 and 1939 Stalin mercilessly carried out a series of massive political extra-judicial executions, rich in natural resourcesknown as the Great Purge, was struggling with of major Communist Party and government rival figures as well as many Red Army high commanders without any proper trials - all convicted of alleged treason or considered a threat. These “enemies of the transition towards industrializationworking class” were imprisoned, exiled, sent to forced labor camps or executed, without due process. The Soviets had In the meantime, Germany revitalized under Adolf Hitler’s leadership, worked to purchase and import more than half revise the post-World War I organizational structure of the necessary factory machinery from Europe, imposed by the United States, England, and France. It occurred that both Hitler and Stalin and seemed to be natural enemies. [[The Nazi triumph: how did Adolf Hitler, therefore, were at odds with become the West. Driven by their mutual resentment for Fuehrer of Germany?|Adolf Hitler]] loathed the West, each for his own reasons Communists and interests under Stalin publicly denounced the circumstances, Communist USSR Nazis. The two regimes were ideological enemies and NAZI Germany it seemed to have much in common and be close to reaching many observers that a Germanwar between the two was inevitable at some stage. <ref>Boobbyer, Phillip <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415182980/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0415182980&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-Soviet cooperation via a natural alliance20&linkId=be2a9195cf0017e9147f778e95d45fbe The Stalin Era]</i> (Routledge, London, 2000),p. 178</ref>
In 1939, London and Paris invited Moscow to co==The Molotov–Ribbentrop Non-sign an Anglo-French guarantee to protect Poland Aggression Pact==[[File: Molotov.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Ribbentrop and Romania from possible German aggression. The Soviets agreed only upon permission from LithuaniaMolotov in Berlin, Poland1940]]After the Nazis rose to power in Germany in 1933, relations between Germany and Romania to allow the free passage of Soviet troops in Union, as the event of war. Howevertwo sworn enemy regimes, Poland refused began to grant its permissiondeteriorate rapidly, fearing Soviet’s secret agenda to take over its territoryand trade between the two countries decreased and almost froze. The West prolonged Soviet-Allied negotiations since Union had generally good relations with the Great Powers feared the spread Weimar Republic.<ref>Boobyer, p 198</ref> Following several years of the communist regime tension and rivalry, Nazi Germany, and considered the Soviet Union as eventually began to improve relations in 1939. German economy thrived by exporting manufactured goods and industrial equipment around the world in exchange for importing raw materials. On the other hand, the USSR was still an outlaw agrarian state for its established social and political structures through internal subversion, armed violence. While it was rich in natural resources, it was struggling to transition to an more industrial economy. The Soviets were forced to purchase and terrorism. USSR in its turn advocated import more than half of the necessary factory machinery from the overthrow of all capitalist regimesUnited States.<ref>The pact was appealing to both Stalin's Secret War Plans: Why and Hitler Invaded because they were both at odds with the West. Driven by their mutual resentment for the West, USSR and Nazi Germany interests briefly aligned and they moved towards [[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?|German-Soviet Union - http://www.wintersonnenwendecooperation and an alliance]].com/scriptorium/english/archives/articles/stalwarplans.html</ref>
After the failure of negotiations with Britain In 1939, London and France, Stalin eventually turned Paris invited Moscow to Germany. As a result, on the 23rd of August 1939, the Soviet Union entered into a nonco-sign an Anglo-French guarantee to protect Poland and Romania from possible German aggression pact with Nazi Germany. The pactSoviets agreed only upon permission from Lithuania, known as Molotov–Ribbentrop PactPoland, was named after the USSR and Nazis foreign affairs political figures at Romania to allow the time. Hitler no more had to fear free passage of Soviet troops in the possibility event of a war on two fronts. MoreoverHowever, Stalin and Hitler signed numerous secret protocols dividing the entire Poland refused to grant its permission because they justifiably feared that Soviets wanted to use these as a pretext to take over its territory of Eastern Europe into Soviet and Nazi spheres of influence. The Soviets would recover eastern Poland, formerly part of Imperial Russia. The Germans also supported West prolonged Soviet-Allied negotiations since the USSR's claims on Bessarabia (eastern part of Romania) and agreed to define Eastern Europe's Baltic (Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Lithuania) and Balkan states as belonging to Great Powers feared the Soviet “sphere spread of interest.” Furthermore, after signing the pact, the countries rapidly expanded their economic relationship by entering into a commercial agreement whereby communist regime and considered the Soviet Union sent critical raw materials as an outlaw state for its established social and ingredients to Germany in exchange for weaponspolitical structures through internal subversion, military technologyarmed violence, civilian and manufacturing machineryterrorism. Thereafter, Germany received significant amounts USSR in its turn advocated the overthrow of petroleum, grain, rubber and manganese, all necessary for its future war effortscapitalist regimes.<ref>Stalin's Secret War Plans: Why Hitler Invaded the Soviet Union - http://www.wintersonnenwende.com/scriptorium/english/archives/articles/stalwarplans. html</ref>
After the Soviet Union's negotiations feel apart with Britain and France, Stalin turned to Germany. As a result, on the 23rd of August 1939, the Soviet Union entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany. The pact, known as [http://dailyhistory.org/The_Molotov-Ribbentrop_Pact-_Stalin%E2%80%99s_greatest_mistake%3F Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact], was named after the USSR and Nazis foreign affairs political figures at the time. This Hitler allayed fears of a two front war in Europe. Moreover, Stalin and Hitler signed numerous secret protocols dividing the entire territory of Eastern Europe into Soviet and Nazi spheres of influence. The Soviets would recover eastern Poland, formerly part of Imperial Russia. The Germans also supported the USSR's claims on Bessarabia (eastern part of Romania) and agreed to define Eastern Europe's Baltic (Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Lithuania) and Balkan states as belonging to the Soviet “sphere of interest.” Furthermore, after signing the pact, the countries rapidly expanded their economic relationship by entering into a commercial agreement whereby the Soviet Union sent critical raw materials and ingredients to Germany in exchange for weapons, military technology, civilian and manufacturing machinery. Thereafter, Germany received significant amounts of petroleum, grain, rubber and manganese, all necessary for its future war efforts. ==Germany' Violation of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and World War II: former allies eventually turn against each other==[[File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-099-19,_Russland,_Angriff_auf_ein_Dorf.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|German Troops in the Soviet Union in 1941]]The two dictators signed secret protocols dividing central Europe between Stalin and Hitler, it efectively effectively let both the USSR and the NAZIS to invade freely countries listed within their “spheres of influence”. However, the agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union could was not be sustainable for long and did, in fact, ultimately set the stage for the start Eastern Front of the World War II.The Still, the initial improving relations with Germany meant that the Soviet Union could expand its territory in Eastern Europe, unmolested into places such as the Baltic States. Stalin believed that his understanding with Hitler would last and this lead him to become he became complacent.<ref> Montefiore, Simon Sebag. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1400076781/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1400076781&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=eb9848bd0a98d402c5a3cab783e1108d Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar]''. (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003), p. 117</ref>
On 1 September 1939, within days of signing the pact and the secret protocols, Hitler invaded Poland, now confident that the Soviets would not oppose him. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany. A couple of weeks later, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east to grab its share. In 1940, the USSR followed up by occupying Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Romanian province of Bessarabia. Britain and France protested but with their forces already at war against Germany, they could not afford fighting to fight Stalin as well. Indeed, initially, the The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact intially worked quite well and showed how similar the two states goals really were. Unfortunately, But this peace it did not last for long. Once the Soviets seized a generous portion of Eastern Europe, they also tried to invade Finland. Despite being tremendously outnumbered and outgunned, the Finns improvised a defense and made the best of the terrain and the ferocious winter weather. At the same time, the German army conquered France without suffering appreciable losses and the British withdrew from the continent. The Germans were astonished at how badly the Soviets performed in fighting with the Finns. This struggle encouraged Germany to attack the USSR. Germany determined that they could defeat Stalin in a rapid campaign ([[How Did the German Military Develop Blitzkrieg?|Blitzkrieg]]) before turning their sights to Brits in the west. <ref>The pact between Hitler and Stalin that paved the way for World War II was signed 75 years ago - http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-08-21/pact-between-hitler-and-stalin-paved-way-world-war-ii-was-signed-75-years-ago</ref> ==Operation Barbarossa== [[File:Barb_2.jpg|thumbnail|325px|left|German soldier in front of BT-7 Panzer tank in Ukraine in 1941]]In addition to weakness the Soviet's showed in Finland, Hitler had also been alarmed by the Soviet Union's seizure of part of Romania. He was concerned that Stalin would target the oil fields in Romania. These oil fields are vital to the German war effort. Hitler moved divisions into Poland and in December 1940 issued a directive for the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Barbarossa. Stalin was warned by several sources of the imminent threat of a Nazi invasion. The Germans actions had been monitored by Soviet Intelligence. Stalin refused to believe it- instead, he continued to assume that Hitler would abide by the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact. In the early morning of 22 June 1941, Hitler officially violated the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union.<ref> Montefiore, p. 245</ref> Historians claim that Stalin was stunned by the invasion and refused to accept the news was true. The Soviet leader had also ignored all warnings from the US, British governments and even his own intelligence officers. Economic and diplomatic relations between the USSR and Germany rapidly deteriorated and were abruptly terminated. The Soviets were not prepared for a war against Germany. The Red Army troops were scattered and dispersed among several fronts. Furthermore, Stalin’s purges of army officers in the 1930s had crippled the Soviet military machine. During the early days of the war the Red Army lacked trustworthy and skillful generals and suffered several disastrous losses. The Red Army ultimately allowed Nazi troops to almost reach the Kremlin gates. <ref>Joseph Stalin and World War II - http://www.history.com/topics/joseph-stalin</ref> The German assault on the Soviet Union was wildly successful. During he early weeks of Operation Barbarossa, Germany averaged gains of 50 miles a day. This rapid advance was abetted by the lack of direction from Stalin. For some time, the Red Army languished without any direction from Stalin.<ref> Montefiore, p. 245</ref>
Once ==Theories on Stalin's Inactivity==There are several theories on why Stalin should have reacted so slowly to the Soviets seized a generous portion of Eastern Europe, they also tried to invade Finlandinvasion. Despite being tremendously outnumbered Some have speculated that Stalin was so shocked by the invasion and outgunned, the Finns improvised betrayal by Hitler that he went into a defense and made the best state of the terrain and the ferocious winter weathershock. At Some believe that such was his despair that Stalin retreated away from the same time, world unable to face the German army conquered France without suffering appreciable losses magnitude of his mistake and the British withdrew from the continentconsequences of his error in trusting Hitler. The Germans were astonished at how badly He had assumed that Hitler would abide by the Soviets performed in terms of the fighting with the Finnsnon-aggression pact of 1939. This encouraged them Some historians have even suggested that the USSR and Stalin were already weakened by the war affairs and thus Hitler could in turn defeat suffered some kind of nervous breakdown. Another, less popular theory is that Stalin in a rapid campaign (Blitzkrieg) even before finishing off deliberately withdrew from the withdrawn Brits in scene, to avoid being ousted from power. When he saw that no one was about to challenge his authority he decided to take control of the westsituation. <ref>The pact between Hitler and Stalin that paved the way for World War II was signed 75 years ago - httpBellamy, Chris, <i>[https://www.priamazon.orgcom/gp/product/stories0375724710/2014ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0375724710&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-08-2120&linkId=4af9160f8751b9120921c7982235532a Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War]</pact-between-hitler-and-stalin-paved-way-world-war-ii-was-signed-75-years-agoi>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf & Random House.2007), p. 53</ref>
Operation Barborosa ==Stalin leads the fightback==However, within weeks Stalin manage to recover from the shock and called for reinforcements. Although German troops had made huge advances into the heartlands of the Soviet Union and the rest of the government had been evacuated from Moscow, Stalin remained in the Kremlin and begun to take control of the country’s ailing military infrastructure. As German troops approached the Soviet capital of Moscow, Stalin directed a devastating defensive policy, destroying any supplies or infrastructure that might benefit the enemy. Fresh competent USSR military commanders loyal to Stalin were allowed to take control of important strategic positions and military divisions. <ref>Bellamy, p. 117</ref> This scorched earth tactic was to deny the Germans key supplies. This was particularly the case as the German supply lines had become extended and the men at the front did not receive the supplies that they needed. The policy of destroying the infrastructure and anything else that could be utilized by the Germans caused immense suffering on the Soviet civilian population, however, it slowed down the German advance. Stalin's policy contributed to the failure of the German army to take Moscow in the early winter of 1941.<ref>Bellamy, p.112</ref>
Hitler had been alarmed by ==Stalin reorganizes the Army==After some weeks of inactivity, the Supreme Soviet Union's seizure leader personally took control of part of Rumania the situation. Stalin dominated the army and he worried had placed men in key positions not based upon their ability but based on their personal allegiance to him. The supreme Soviet leader was very afraid that Stalin was targeting if he gave too much independence to the oil fields in army, that country, vital to the German war effortGenerals would remove him from power. Hitler moved divisions to Poland and in December 1940 issued a directive for After the invasion of the Soviet Union. Stalin was warned by several sources of and the imminent threat of a Nazi invasion. The Germans actions had been monitored poor leadership shown by Soviet Intelligence. Stalin refused to believe it- insteadmany Generals, he continued adopted a new policy he promoted men of ability to assume that Hitler would abide by positions of authority in the Molotov-Ribbentrop pactarmed forces, such as Zhukov.In This greatly improved the early morning leadership of 22 June 1941, Hitler officially violated the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact Red Army and invaded allowed it to be more effective against the Soviet UnionNazi armies. Historians claim that Stalin was stunned by also reorganized the invasion and for quite some time refused to accept the news was trueSoviet Army's High Command. The Soviet leader had ignored all warnings received from He established the USStavka, British and his own intelligence officers regarding a potential invasion. Economic and diplomatic relations between the two countries rapidly deteriorated and abruptly terminated. The Soviets were not prepared for a war against Germany with this provided the Red Army troops scattered and dispersed among several fronts. Furthermore, Stalin’s purges of army officers in with the 1930s had crippled the Soviet military machine and leadership it needed in the early days of life or death struggle with the warGermans. Stalin supervised Stavka closely, the Red Army, lacking trustworthy and skillful generals, suffered disastrous losses letting NAZI troops almost reach Kremlin gatesbut he also gave his Generals more authority. <ref>Joseph "Stalin and World War II 's Role in WWII" - http://wwwyesterday.historyuktv.comco.uk/topicswarzone/josepharticle/stalins-stalinrole-wwii/</ref>. the Germans in the early weeks of Operation Barbarossa had made gains of 50 miles a day. One of the reasons for their early success was that there was a lack of direction from Stalin. For some time, the Red Army received no leadership from Stalin.
Theories on Stalinalso sought to raise the fighting morale of the troops. He well knew that many ordinary Soviet citizens were still Russian nationalists at heart and venerated the Orthodox Church. In order to improve the morale of the army and their loyalty, he promoted Russian nationalism, even though as a Communist he was ideologically opposed to nationalism. Furthermore, he stopped persecuting the Orthodox Church. These measures made Stalin popular with the army and raised the morale of the troops. This stiffened their resistance to the invasion of the Russian 'Motherland.'<ref> Zhukov, Georgiĭ Konstantinovich & Harrison E., Salisbury, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0356029239/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0356029239&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=422ccd38a753dde5fbe26d0486b12cb8 Marshal Zhukov's InactivityGreatest Battles]</i> (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), p. 116</ref>
There are several theories on why Stalin should have reacted so slowly to ==Alliance with the West== As the German invasionof Russia progressed. Stalin contacted Western diplomats requesting two agreements. Some have speculated He aimed at reaching a mutual assistance/aid pact and a recognition that Stalin was so shocked by after the war the invasion and Soviet Union would gain the betrayal by territories in countries that it would take war actions against Hitler that he went into a state on the Eastern front. [[How did Winston Churchill become Prime Minister of shockthe United Kingdom in World War Two?|Winston Churchill]] was very willing to have an alliance with Stalin. Some believe that such Even though He was his despair that an ardent anti-communist and he personally disliked Stalin retreated away from the world unable . He agreed to face support the magnitude of his mistake and Soviets in their battle with the consequences of his error in trusting HitlerGermans. He had assumed that Hitler Churchill pithy states when criticized for allying Britain with the Soviets 'I would abide by become the terms of devils' ally if Hitler invaded Hell'. Stalin's diplomatic moves in the non-aggression pact aftermath of 1939Operation Barbarossa was shrewd. Some historians have even suggested that Stalin suffered some kind It allowed him to receive the support of nervous breakdownfirst the British and later the Americans. Another<ref> Belamy, less popular theory is that Stalin deliberately withdrew from p. 34</ref> the British began to supply the sceneSoviets with arms and other supplies, in order to see if anyone tried to oust him from powervia Iran and the Antartic. When he saw that no one was about Stalin's diplomatic response to challenge the invasion of his authority he decided country was to take control become the ally of his ideological rivals, the situationwestern democracies. <ref>Stalin's Role in WWII - http://yesterday.uktv.co.uk/warzone/article/stalins-role-wwii/</ref>
==Conclusion==Stalin leads made a potentially fatal mistake in trusting Hitler and when the fightbackGerman's invaded he seemed to have been in a state of shock. This meant that his response to the invasion was slow and this allowed the Germans to make great inroads into his country until the Communists seemed on the verge of defeat. Stalin soon took charge and adopted new tactics. Crucially he reorganized the army, raised its morale and entered into a new alliance with the west. These decisions proved crucial and delayed, and eventually stopped the German advance and in the long run, Stalin was able to defeat the Nazi army.<div class="portal" style="width:85%;">==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==*[[What were the goals of the Axis powers and the Soviet Union during World War Two?]]*[[How Did the German Military Develop Blitzkrieg?]]*[[Why did Operation Market Garden in 1944 fail?]]*[[How did Mussolini become Prime Minister of Italy?]]*[[The Nazi triumph: how did Adolf Hitler become the Fuehrer of Germany?]]*[[Why was France defeated in 1940?]]</div>{{Mediawiki:WWII}}
However, within weeks Stalin manage to recover from the shock and called for reinforcements. Although German troops had made huge advances into the heartlands of the Soviet Union and the rest of the government had been evacuated from Moscow, Stalin remained in the Kremlin and begun to take control of the country’s ailing military infrastructure. As German troops approached the Soviet capital of Moscow, Stalin directed a devastating defensive policy, destroying any supplies or infrastructure that might benefit the enemy. Fresh competent USSR military commanders loyal to Stalin were allowed to take control of important strategic positions and military divisions.==References==<references/>
==Stalin re-organsies the Army==[[Category:Wikis]]In 1942, failing to achieve his Blitzkrieg and with the advance of winter and severe weather conditions, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union and its oil fields, vital to a long-term German war effort. The invading Germans aimed at Stalingrad as essential to their campaign strategic point in southern Russia while the Soviets were determined to defend the city as a vital industrial and transportation center at all cost. Both Stalin and Hitler understood the symbolic importance of the only city to bear the Soviet dictator’s name. However, the tide turned for the Soviets with the monumental Battle of Stalingrad, from August 1942 to February 1943, during which the Red Army defeated the Germans and eventually drove them from Russia in a fierce combat and resistance. <ref>Battle of Stalingrad - http[[Category:Russian History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]][[Category://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/battle-of-stalingrad</ref>On February 2, 1943, left with no provisions and surrounded by the reinforced Red Army, the Germans were forced to surrender. About 150 000 Germans had died in the fighting for Stalingrad. Furthermore, although there were over 2.5 million Soviet casualties, the Soviet victory at Stalingrad permitted the USSR to turn back offensive for the rest of the war on the Eastern front. Stalingrad was a great humiliation for Hitler. He then became more distrustful than ever of his generals. Stalin, on the other hand, gained confidence back in his military. <ref>Stalin's Role in WWII - httpEuropean History]] [[Category://yesterday.uktv.co.uk/warzone/article/stalins-role-wwii/</ref> 20th Century History]]As the WWII progressed, confident of an oncoming Allied victory over Germany, Stalin contacted Western diplomats requesting two agreements. He aimed at reaching a mutual assistance/aid pact and a recognition that after the war the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it would take war actions against Hitler on the Eastern front.{{Contributors}}
