Changes

Universities today are a key component for modern states and economies, where the professional classes and academic research are fostered. We often rate societies by their abilities to produce scientific achievement and develop economic success, where universities play a critical role. However, the history of universities was very different, and these institutions were first relatively parochial, and only in recent times have they become pervasive.

Early institutions of higher learning existed long before universities were established. These early institutions conducted research and taught pupils, similar to our ideas of universities today. Early recordings from Egypt and Mesopotamia suggest some scholars conducted research, and these scholars likely taught and were affiliated with institutions of learning. The Ashurbanipal Library at Nineveh and Library at Sippar were collections of knowledge that likely also had students and teachers associated with them that taught a select group of individuals who learned the complex written languages of their day also began to study and apply their knowledge. <ref>For more on learning in Mesopotamia and Egypt, see: Krebs, Robert E. 2004. Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries through the Ages. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.</ref>

====The Platonic Academy of Greece====

In Europe, during the Roman and later Antiquity period, scholarship continued to follow the Greeks' Platonic tradition. However, these institutions were closed by the 6th century CE due to their association with pagan practices and philosophies. With the fall of the Roman Empire, scholarship became confined to isolated monasteries. These monasteries trained individuals in learning, mostly those who became priests or monks and began to document some of the Greek and other knowledge from the past.<ref>For a history of early Medieval European learning, see: Kleinhenz, Christopher, ed. 2004. Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. The Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages. New York: Routledge, pg. 314.</ref>

[[File:Merton College, Oxford (3916021906).jpg|thumbnail|left|Figure 2. Merton College in Oxford, one of Oxford's oldest colleges and residences..]]

The first true university, an institution called such, was founded in Bologna, Italy, in 1088. The Latin phrase <i>universitas magistrorum et scholarium</i> indicated an association of teachers and scholars. At this early date, universities were more of an association or a guild for learning particular crafts. In the case of Bologna, the focus was law. The emphasis was on training students for more developed skills within a particular profession to serve and develop those skills at more professional levels. Oxford, the second oldest university and oldest English speaking university, was probably sometime late in the 11th century. Traditions such as having a chancellor and residence halls had become established by the 13th century. Oxford had established its oldest colleges, Balliol and Merton Colleges, by the mid 13th century (Figure 2).<ref>For more on the early universities, see: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, ed. 1992. Universities in the Middle Ages. A History of the University in Europe, v. 1. Cambridge [England] ; New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

A key development occurred in the founding of the University of Naples, founded in 1224. It was founded as a public institution dedicated to a king rather than the pope or Catholic church. Some see this as the beginning of developing the concept of secular education, although virtually all higher education institutions had religious curriculum as part of their broader education. In Germany, where many cities developed very independent traditions, we see municipalities and municipal governments being active in universities' founding. This is the case with the University of Cologne, founded in 1388.<ref>For more on public universities' development, see: Nicholas, David. 1992. The Evolution of the Medieval World: Society, Government, and Thought in Europe, 312-1500. London ; New York: Longman.</ref>

By the late Medieval and Early Modern Period, the number of universities began to grow rapidly in Europe, whereby in the 18th century, there were probably around 143 universities. This does not include other forms of higher education institutions that did not call themselves universities, such as academies. The University of Paris began to develop the idea of faculties that differentiated areas of study. The topics of focus that began to develop in universities were philosophy. The traditional title for PhDs is philosophy, medicine, logic, theology, law, mathematics, astronomy, and grammar. These branches of study were seen to be related to a humanistic perspective, as many required translation of ancient works in addition to a focus on the discipline.<ref>For more on the early modern universities, see: Kirwan, Richard, and Jonathan Davies. 2013. Scholarly Self-Fashioning and Community in the Early Modern University. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate.</ref>