Changes

[[File:Yemen landscape 05.jpg|thumbnail|left|Figure 1. Example of terraces in Arabia, perhaps similar to those developed already by the Neolithic]]__NOTOC__The history of water use and technologies to bring water to human societies is long, particularly in some of the world's most arid regions where human -settled societies first began. Technologies of water also Water technologies evolved as other technologies technology developed and , the social organization became more complex and states changeddeveloped. While we often think of Roman aqueducts as a great marvelmarvels, which they were, other complex water technologies, just as complex, existed beforemuch earlier.

====Early Canals====The earliest water technologies are likely to have been simple ditches or cuts made to irrigate fields. In the Near East, irrigation likely began soon after agriculture began to be developed.<ref>For examples and discussions of early irrigation systems, see: Mashkour, Marjan, Andrew M. Bauer, Tony J. Wilkinson, Nicholas Kouchoukos, and Abbas Alizadeh. 2004. “Human-Environment Interactions on the Upper Khuzestan Plains, Southwest Iran. Recent Investigations.” ''Paléorient 30'' (1): 69–88. doi:10.3406/paleo.2004.4773.</ref> Most likely these types of irrigation canals would be too small or small in scale to leave any major archaeological remains. Evidence of terrace agriculture from the Neolithic, however, suggests that water captured from the higher ground was beginning to be transferred to lower areas, including possibly using canals to move water (Figure 1). In China, similar Neolithic evidence has been found, showing that early villages sometimes had a relatively complex network of canals near village fields, where even field systems have been partially preserved. <ref>For an example of irrigation systems in Neolithic China, see: Hu, Linchao, Zhihong Chao, Min Gu, Fuchun Li, Lina Chen, Bending Liu, Xia Li, et al. 2013. “Evidence for a Neolithic Age Fire-Irrigation Paddy Cultivation System in the Lower Yangtze River Delta, China.” <i>Journal of Archaeological Science 40</i> (1): 72–78. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.04.021.</ref>

The earliest water technologies are likely to Wells would have been simple ditches or cuts made to irrigate fieldsalso constructed for ancient villages. In the Near Eastparticular, many early villages were located on hills or higher ground, irrigation likely began soon after agriculture began which allowed them to be developedbetter drained and avoid flooding in the wet seasons.<ref> For examples and discussions an example of an early irrigation systemsNeolithic well-based village and system, see: MashkourGarfinkel, MarjanYosef, Andrew M. Bauer, Tony J. Wilkinson, Nicholas KouchoukosAriel Vered, and Abbas AlizadehOfer Bar-Yosef. 20042006. “Human-Environment Interactions on the Upper Khuzestan Plains“The Domestication of Water: The Neolithic Well at Sha’ar Hagolan, Jordan Valley, Southwest Iran. Recent InvestigationsIsrael.” Paléorient 30 <i>Antiquity 80</i> (1309): 69–88. doi:10.3406/paleo.2004.4773686–96.</ref> Most likely these types However, this created the problem of irrigation canals would be too small or small in scale easily accessing water. This led to leave any major archaeological remains. Evidence the development of terrace agriculture from the Neolithic, howeverwells, suggests that as water captured from higher ground was beginning to underneath these hilly areas could be transferred to lower areas, including possibly using canals to move water (Figure 1)easily accessed. In China, similar Neolithic evidence has been found, showing that early villages had sometimes a relatively complex network of canals near village fields, where even field systems have been partially preserved. <ref>For an example of irrigation systems in Neolithic China, see: Hu, Linchao, Zhihong Chao, Min Gu, Fuchun Li, Lina Chen, Bending Liu, Xia Li, et al. 2013. “Evidence for a Neolithic Age Fire-Irrigation Paddy Cultivation System in the Lower Yangtze River Delta, China.” Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (1): 72–78. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.04.021.</ref>

Wells would have been also constructed for early villages====Early Historical Societies====By the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, more complex societies developed with larger settlements. In particularin southern Mesopotamia (southern Iraq), many early villages were located on hills or higher ground, which allowed them to be better drained and avoid flooding in where we see the wet seasonsfirst cities form. <ref> For an example of an early Neolithic well-based village information about 4th millennium BC canals and systemirrigation in southern Mesopotamia, see: GarfinkelWilkinson, Yosef, Ariel Vered, and Ofer Bar-YosefT. J. 20062003. “The Domestication ''Archaeological Landscapes of Waterthe Near East''. Tucson: The Neolithic Well at Sha’ar HagolanUniversity of Arizona Press, Jordan Valley, Israelpg.” Antiquity 80 (309): 686–9689.</ref> However, this created the problem region is very dry and depended heavily on two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. Irrigation began to become more complex, with longer channels and managed by groups of easily accessing people at different points, including controlling sluices that would release waterto different areas. This led development is similar to the development Indus region along the Indian and Pakistani border, where the Indus river became important in dry regions as major cities developed. Similar types of canals to those of wellssouthern Mesopotamia seem to have developed, as water underneath these hilly areas could be easily accessedleading to also large cities by the 3rd millennium BC. <ref>For more information on irrigation in the Indus region, see: McIntosh, Jane. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives.</i> ABC-CLIO’s Understanding Ancient Civilizations Series. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, pg.115</ref>

[[File:Yemen landscape 05What is critical for these early systems is that they forced societies to better organize labor for construction and maintenance, which helped to encourage more complex organization and state formation.jpg|thumbnail|Figure 1. Example In essence, canals and irrigation likely had a significant role in the development of terraces some early, complex state societies developing in Arabia, perhaps similar to those developed already by Mesopotamia and the Neolithic]]Indus region.

By the 4th ====Iron and 3rd millennium BC, more complex societies developed with larger settlementsIrrigation Technology====[[File:Qanat.jpg|thumbnail|left|Figure 2. In particular in southern Mesopotamia Qanata system (southern Iraqarrows), where we see showing the first cities formaccess holes. <ref> For information about 4th millennium BC canals and irrigation in southern Mesopotamia, see: Wilkinson, T. J. 2003Underneath lies a tunnel that would have carried water to agricultural fields. Archaeological Landscapes ]]Probably one of the Near East. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, pg. 89.</ref> However, the region is very dry and depended heavily on two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. Irrigation began most important developments to become enable more complex, with longer channels and managed by groups of people at different points, including controlling sluices that would release advanced water to different areas. This technologies was the development is similar to the Indus region along the Indian and Pakistani border, where the Indus river became important in dry regions as major cities developeduse of iron. Similar types The increasing sophistication of canals to those of southern Mesopotamia seem to have developed, leading to also large cities mathematics and engineering by the 3rd 1st millennium BC. <ref> For more information on irrigation in the Indus region, see: McIntoshalong with iron technology, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO’s Understanding Ancient Civilizations Series. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, pg. 115 </ref> What is critical enabled the next major phase of development for these early systems is that they forced societies irrigation technologies to better organize labor for construction and maintenanceoccur. With the use of iron, which helped to encourage rock could be excavated more complex organization and state formationeasily. In essence, canals and irrigation likely had a major role in This advance facilitated the development of some earlymore sub-surface irrigation features, complex state societies developing in Mesopotamia including tunnels and the Indus regionqanat systems (Figure 2), which were tunnels with access holes that brought water from highland regions to lowland areas.

In ArabiaThese qanats also required a large amount of engineering, already new forms of water capturing technologies may have developed. This includes surface as channels and dams had to capture water be cut across mountains or difficult hilly areas, while channels were sometimes even cut from the highlands different areas and bring were met some place in the water down to lowland regionmiddle. Some have suggested that already underground Surface channels, called falaj/qanats, cut into mountain rock were already now also developed, but this is not universally accepted.<ref> For information on early Arabian irrigation and types which allowed the capture of features, see: al-Jahwari, Nasser Said. 2009. “The Agricultural Basis of Umm an-Nar Society in the Northern Oman Peninsula (2500-2000 BC).” Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 20 (2): 122–33water from elevated regions.</ref>

==These technologies appear to have developed perhaps in Anatolia, Iran, or Arabia, although the origins are not completely clear. <ref>For more information on these Iron Age developments, see: Solomon, Steven. 2011. <i>Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization</i>. New York: Harper Perennial.</ref> In fact, what is significant about qanat systems is they enable the Iranian plateau to be densely populated, setting up the foundation of what would become a series of Iranian-based dynasties that occupied highland regions, such as the Achaemenids, Parthians, and Sasanians. In essence, water technologies altered the path of history, as it enabled a region once sparsely populated to become more central for large states and develop more dense populations. <ref> For more information on the role of qanats in developing settled societies and empires, see: Christensen, Peter, and Steven Sampson. 2016. <i>Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation Technology==and Environment in the Middle East, 500 BC-AD 1500</i>. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.</ref>

Probably one of the most important developments to enable more advanced water technologies was the development and use of iron. In fact, the increasing sophistication of mathematics and engineering by During the Iron Age (early 1st millennium BC), along with iron technologyanother significant development occurred, enabled which is when the next major phase construction of development for irrigation technologies to occuraqueducts began. With The first aqueduct we know of developed in northern Iraq, just north of the use city of iron, rock could be excavated more easilyMosul. This facilitated the development aqueduct, part of more sub-surface irrigation features, including tunnels and qanat systems (Figure 2), which were essentially tunnels with access holes that brought an extensive canal system bringing water from highland regions to lowland areas. These qanats also required a large amount the city of engineeringNineveh, as channels had enabled water to be cut across mountains or difficult hilly areas, while channels were sometimes even cut from delivered over different areas and were met some place in the middlewatersheds. Surface channels cut into mountain rock were In other words, it now also developed, which allowed the capture of water from elevated regions. These technologies appear societies to build irrigation features that crossed natural elevation change that would have developed perhaps in Anatolia, Iran, or Arabia, although the origins are not completely clear. <ref>For more information on these Iron Age developments, see: Solomon, Steven. 2011. Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization. New York: Harper Perennial.</ref> In fact, what is significant about qanat systems is they enable the Iranian plateau to be densely populated, setting up the foundation of what would become a series of Iranian-based dynasties that occupied highland regions, such as the Achaemenids, Parthians, and Sassanians.<ref> For more information on the role of qanats in developing settled societies and empires, see: Christensen, Peter, and Steven Sampson. 2016. Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environment in the Middle East, 500 BC-AD 1500. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Pressrestricted where you could irrigate.</ref>

During the Iron Age (early 1st millennium BC), another important development occurred, which the development of aqueducts began ====Conclusion====Irrigation and water technologies have been critical to appearhuman societies for millennia. In fact, the The first aqueduct we know of developed in northern Iraq, just north great use of water technologies probably began soon after the city development of Mosulsettled societies. This aqueductHowever, part as societies became more complex, technologies such as iron, and mathematics improved. These developments allowed these civilizations to use of a large canal system bringing water technologies in more sophisticated ways. It is arguable that irrigation technologies helped to encourage or speedup the city development of Ninevehcomplex, state societies, enabled as it required a greater organization and control of labor. The issue of water to be brought over different watersheds. In other wordsmanagement, in essence, it now allowed societies to build irrigation features that crossed natural elevation change that would have restricted where you could irrigatebecomes critical or important for state development.

[[File:QanatFurthermore, qanats and aqueducts, both invented probably by the Iron Age in the early 1st millennium BC, are still in use today, showing the durability of this technology.jpg|thumbnail|Figure 2. Qanata system (arrows) showing Some qanats and aqueducts used today, in fact, date to the access holesRoman period. Underneath lies Similar to irrigation channels, qanats also had a tunnel major role in influencing societies, as it enabled regions of Iran and other areas that would have carried water were more sparsely populated to agricultural fieldsbecome more greatly settled, changing the direction of history as Iranian-based empires began to become the norm.]]

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Irrigation and water technologies have been critical to human societies for millennia. The first great use of water technologies probably began soon after *[[What was the development of settled societies. However, as societies became more complex, that is larger cities developed, and technologies, such as iron, and mathematics improved, we begin to see far more sophisticated use of water technologies. In fact, it is arguable that irrigation technologies helped to encourage or speedup the development of complex, state societies, as it required a greater organization and control of labor. The issue of water management, dominant medical sect in essence, becomes critical or important for state development. Furthermore, qanats and aqueducts, both invented probably by the Iron Age in United States during the early 1st millennium BC, are still in use today, showing 19th Century?]]*[[How did illegal abortions spur the durability of this technology. Some qanats and aqueducts used today, push for medical licensing in fact, date to the Roman period. Similar to irrigation channels, qanats also had a major role in influencing societies, as it enabled regions 19th Century?]]*[[Social History of Iran and other areas that were more sparsely populated to become more greatly settled, changing the direction American Medicine Top Ten Booklist]]*[[Causes of history as Iranian-based empires began to become the normWorld War II Top Ten Booklist]]*[[Gilded Age/Progressive Era History Top Ten Booklist]]*[[Nature's Path: Interview with Susan E.Cayleff]]</div>

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