Changes

The gladiatorial games of ancient Rome are well-known today due to the numerous films produced over the last few decades where they play a role. The gladiators' fictional accounts of the gladiators do in fact show a lot of many truthful elements of the games, but often mix different events from various periods of Roman history.  The reality is that the gladiatorial games played a major role in Roman culture from the early days of the Republic well into and the days of decline in the Empire. Archaeological, art historical, and textual evidence have allowed modern scholars to trace the evolution of the gladiatorial games from small private occasions that were associated with religion and rituals to the major events most people think of, which were for the most part designed to keep the people content and to eliminate enemies of the state.

====Gladiatorial Games Defined====

When one thinks of gladiatorial events today, images of men fighting each other with nets and tridents often first come to mind. Still, but for many, images of men fighting ferocious big cats and other animals is are also evoked. Actually, gladiatorial games and beast hunts were two different events, but they were both known as <i>munera</i>, which translated from Latin means “blood sports.” Blood sports  Bloodsports became a hallmark of Roman culture from an early point, but another trademark of Roman culture was the tendency to categorize things, which the Romans did with their blood sports. The blood sport of hunting and killing animals for crowds, known as <i>venation</i>, is known from the Roman Republic era (509-first century BC), often playing a prominent role in military triumphs and public shows. Although the Romans made beast hunting into a public event, its origins can be traced back to the Near East, where the kings of Egypt, Assyria and other kingdoms killed lions to demonstrate their power and virility. <ref> Kyle, Donald G. <i>Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World.</i> (Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2007), p. 264</ref> The first public beast hunt to be held in Rome took place in 186 BC and from that point on they became a regular occurrence in the amphitheaters around the city. The men hunting and killing the animals were usually free and professionals, but part of the entertainer class so they were low on the Roman social scale. <ref> Kyle, pgs. 268-9</ref> The development of the gladiatorial games is a bit harder to trace, although they also became a part of Roman culture at an early point.

The earliest depictions of gladiatorial combat in Italy are Although the so-called Campanian gladiator frescoesRomans made beast hunting into a public event, which are dated its origins can be traced back to the fourth century BC. Although there is no text that accompanies Near East, where the frescoeskings of Egypt, it is believed that they show part of a funeral game probably fought by volunteers Assyria, and other kingdoms killed lions to the first bloodsheddemonstrate their power and virility. Many other early gladiators were probably prisoners of war forced to fight in funeral games<ref> Kyle, which then evolved into skilled, professional fightersDonald G. The name “gladiator” is derived from the name of the sword many of the early gladiators used <i>Sport and Spectacle in the names, the Ancient World.</i>gladius(Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2007), p. 264</iref>The first public beast hunt to be held in Rome took place in 186 BC, indication and from that point on, they became a regular occurrence in the amphitheaters around the martial background city. The men hunting and killing the animals were usually free and professionals, but part of the activityentertainer class, so they were low on the Roman social scale. <ref> Kyle, ppgs. 271268-9</ref> The gladiatorial games' development is a bit harder to trace, although they also became a part of the Roman culture at an early point.

===Gladiator Games The earliest depictions of gladiatorial combat in Italy are the so-called Campanian gladiator frescoes, dated to the fourth century BC. Although no text accompanies the frescoes, it is believed that they show part of a funeral game probably fought by volunteers to the Roman Republic===The first gladiatorial bloodshed. Many other early gladiators were probably prisoners of war forced to fight in funeral games recorded , which then evolved into skilled, professional fighters. The name “gladiator” is derived from the name of the sword many of the early gladiators used in Rome took place in 264 BCthe names, the <i>gladius</i>, when indicating the sons martial background of Decimus Junius Brutus organized an event for their recently deceased fatherthe activity. <ref> Kyle, p. 273271</ref> After those games, there are no more records of gladiatorial events in Rome until 216 BC, probably because the Romans were too preoccupied with the increasingly tenuous geo-political situation with Carthage, which eventually led to the Second Punic War (218-202 BC). Interestingly, the historian Livy wrote that the Carthaginian general Hannibal conducted his own type of blood sports when he invaded Rome in 218 BC. He wrote:

“He formed his troops into a circle, and had some prisoners, whom he had captured == When did Gladiator Games begin in the mountains, brought into Roman Republic? ==The first gladiatorial games recorded in Rome took place in 264 BC when the middle sons of it in chainsDecimus Junius Brutus organized an event for their recently deceased father. <ref> Kyle, p. Gallic weapons were laid on the ground in front of them273</ref> After those games, and an interpreter was told to ask if any there are no more records of them would be willing to fight gladiatorial events in single combat if he Rome until 216 BC, probably because the Romans were released from his chains and offered a horse, together too preoccupied with the weaponsincreasingly tenuous geopolitical situation with Carthage, as which eventually led to the prize of victorySecond Punic War (218-202 BC).” <ref> Interestingly, the historian Livy. <i> The War with wrote that the Carthaginian general Hannibal: Books XXIconducted his own blood sports-XXX of The History of type when he invaded Rome form its Foundation.</i> Translated by Aubrey de Sélincourtin 218 BC. (LondonHe wrote: Penguin, 1972), XXI, 42 </ref>

It is unknown how much Hannibal’s “games” “He formed his troops into a circle and had some prisoners, whom he had on captured in the Roman blood sportsmountains, but brought into the middle of it cannot be discounted since the Roman blood sports were quite eclectic in their originschains. By the late Republic gladiatorial games Gallic weapons were highly institutionalized – laid on the gladiators were well-trained ground in front of them, and valuable prisoners an interpreter was told to ask if any of war, who fought them would be willing to fight in distinct styles. All gladiators single combat if he were dressed released from his chains and offered a horse, together with the weapons, as and fought in the style prize of victory.” <ref> Livy. <i> The War with Hannibal: Books XXI-XXX of one The History of Rome’s three early enemies: Samnite, Thracian, and Gaul. These three designations were introduced at an early point but were retained as long as gladiators fought in Romefrom its Foundation. <ref/i> KyleTranslated by Aubrey de Sélincourt. (London: Penguin, p. 2811972), XXI, 42 </ref>

===Gladiator Games and Beast Hunts in It is unknown how much Hannibal’s “games” had on the Early Empire===During Roman blood sports, but it cannot be discounted since the Civil Wars of the second half of the last century BC and Roman blood sports were quite eclectic in their origins. By the early years of the Roman Empirelate Republic, gladiator gladiatorial games and beast hunts went from being minor events to big business. Julius Caesar (100were highly institutionalized – the gladiators were well-44 BC), ever the astute trained and pragmatic politician, saw the potential for using the games for political advantagevaluable prisoners of war who fought in distinct styles. In his efforts to combine Roman blood sports All gladiators were dressed as and politics, Caesar ended fought in the tradition style of only holding gladiatorial games for funerals and introduced <i>naumachias</i>one of Rome’s three early enemies: Samnite, staged sea battlesThracian, into amphitheatersand Gaul. Caesar also became known for sparing particularly skilled and popular These three designations were introduced at an early point but were retained as long as gladiatorsfought in Rome. <ref>Kyle, p. 287281</ref> The first century AD Roman biographer Suetonius noted this abrupt transition.

“During his aedileship, Caesar filled == What type of Gladiator matches were shown to the public?==During the Civil Wars of the Comitium, second half of the Forum, its adjacent basilicas last century BC and in the Capitol itself with a display early years of the material which he meant Roman Empire, gladiator games and beast hunts went from minor events to use in his public showsbig business. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), ever the astute and pragmatic politician, building temporary colonnades saw the potential for using the purposegames for political advantage. He exhibited wild-beast hunts In his efforts to combine Roman blood sports and stage playspolitics, some at his own expense. . . Caesar also put on a gladiatorial show, but had collected so immense a troop of combatants that his terrified political opponents rushed through a bill limiting ended the number tradition of gladiators that anyone might keep in Rome.” <ref> Suetonius. only holding gladiatorial games for funerals and introduced <i> The Twelve Caesars.naumachias</i> Translated by Robert Graves. (London: Penguin, 1972)staged sea battles, Divus Juliusinto amphitheaters. Caesar also became known for sparing particularly skilled and popular gladiators. <ref>Kyle, X p. 287</ref>The first century AD Roman biographer Suetonius noted this abrupt transition.

After another round of Civil War following “During his aedileship, Caesar filled the Comitium, the assassination of CaesarForum, Octavianits adjacent basilicas, and the nephew and adopted son Capitol itself with a display of Caesarthe material he meant to use in his public shows, took building temporary colonnades for the mantle of emperor purpose. He exhibited wild-beast hunts and changed stage plays, some at his name to Augustus own expense. . . Caesaralso put on a gladiatorial show. Known more for his erudition and ability to read peopleStill, both enemies and allies, Augustus followed Caesar’s footsteps by using he had collected so immense a variety troop of different games to placate combatants that his terrified political opponents rushed through a bill limiting the peoplenumber of gladiators that anyone might keep in Rome.” <ref> Suetonius. <i> The Twelve Caesars.</i> Translated by Robert Graves. (London: Penguin, 1972), Divus Julius, X </ref>

“No one before had ever provided so manyAfter another round of Civil War following the assassination of Caesar, so differentOctavian, or such splendid public shows. He records the presentation nephew and adopted son of four games in his own name and twenty-three in Caesar, took the names mantle of other magistrates who were either absent or could not afford the expenseemperor and changed his name to Augustus Caesar. Sometimes plays were shown in all the various city districts Known more for his erudition and on several stagesability to read people, enemies, the actors speaking a variety of languages; and gladiators fought not only in the Forum or the amphitheatreallies, but in Augustus followed Caesar’s footsteps by using various games to placate the Circus and Saepta as wellpeople.” <ref> Suetonius, Divus Augustus, XLIII</ref>

Julius Caesar “No one before had ever provided so many, so different, or such splendid public shows. He records the presentation of four games in his own name and Augustus truly set twenty-three in the precedent for how names of other magistrates who were either absent or could not afford the later emperors would use blood sports – they would continue to grow expense. Sometimes plays were shown in size all the various city districts. On several stages, the actors speaking a variety of languages and scope, truly becoming gladiators fought not only in the Forum or the amphitheater but also in the “bread Circus and circuses” of which they are known todaySaepta as well.” <ref> Suetonius, Divus Augustus, XLIII</ref>

Julius Caesar and Augustus truly set a precedent for how the later emperors would use blood sports – they would continue to grow in size and scope, truly becoming the “bread and circuses” of which they are known today. ===Blood Sports and Why did the number of Gladiator games increase as the Later Emperors=Roman Empire faltered? ==

As Rome’s political, social, and economic problems continued to increase, succeeding emperors increased the games' number and frequency of the games. For example, under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (ruled AD 161-180), often thought of as one of the most enlightened emperors, state -funded games comprised 135 days of the 230 -day festival schedule. <ref> Kyle, p. 301</ref> The games became so big that even some emperors, Caligula and Commodus , for example, personally took part. Although those two are among the least popular, corrupt, and ineffective of Rome’s emperors, their involvement demonstrates the increasing cultural importance of the blood sports. And as the games became more popular, they also became more complex in some ways. By the early Roman Empire, the compartmentalized thinking of the Romans was on full display in their scheduling of blood sports, which usually followed a regular, day long schedule. The events would usually begin in the morning with a beast hunt, or mass execution via animals. The violent spectacles would be interrupted by dancing or athletic competitions at lunch, which was then followed by the main event of gladiatorial combat. Group battles, which were usually fought by condemned criminals who were not true gladiators, were conducted just before the gladiator battles if there were any scheduled for the day. <ref>Kyle, pgs. 312-14</ref> These events could be held in any of the thousands of amphitheaters in Roman territory, but the most visible stadium was of course the Colosseum in Rome.

Construction The Romans' compartmentalized thinking was on the Colosseum first began under the rule full display in their scheduling of blood sports by the Emperor Vespasian (reigned AD 69early Roman Empire, which usually followed a regular, day-79) and was completed long schedule. The events would usually begin in AD 80 the morning with a beast hunt or mass execution via animals. The violent spectacles would be interrupted by his successor and sondancing or athletic competitions at lunch, Titus (ruled AD 79-81). The famous stadium which was a state then followed by the main event of the art facilitygladiatorial combat. Group battles, which were usually fought by condemned criminals who were not true gladiators, with were conducted just before the capacity to hold 50,000 fans. It had seventy-six entrances and 160 passages to make movement easier and on hot and sunny days gladiator battles if there was an adjustable canvass awning that covered were any scheduled for the standsday. <ref> ScarreKyle, Chrispgs. 312-14<i/ref>The Penguin Historical Atlas These events could be held in any of the thousands of Ancient amphitheaters in Roman territory, but the most visible stadium was the Colosseum in Rome.</i> (London: Penguin, 1995), p. 83</ref>

The size of Construction on the Colosseum allowed for a seemingly endless line of blood sports to take place. Thousands of gladiators fought on its soil first began under the Emperor Vespasian rule (reigned AD 69-79) and was completed in AD 80 by his successor and even more animals were killed for the amusement of cheering fans. In the year 107 aloneson, during the reign of the Emperor Trajan Titus (ruled AD 9879-11781). The famous stadium was a state of the art facility, it is estimated that as many as 11with the capacity to hold 50,000 animals were killed in hunts fans. It had seventy-six entrances and 160 passages to make movement easier, and on hot and various other gamessunny days, there was an adjustable canvass awning that covered the stands. <ref> Scarre, Chris. <i>The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome.</i> (London: Penguin, 1995), p. 8283</ref> Truly, by the second century AD Roman blood sports had evolved into a major industry that was an important part of the culture.

===Conclusion===Blood sports are perhaps The size of the most intriguing aspect Colosseum allowed for a seemingly endless line of Roman culture blood sports to many modern peopletake place. The idea Thousands of men fighting to the death gladiators fought on its soil, and even more, animals were killed for the entertainment amusement of others may be difficult to understandcheering fans. In the year 107 alone, but an examination during the reign of the primary sources reveals Emperor Trajan (ruled AD 98-117), it is estimated that it was a logical evolutionas many as 11,000 animals were killed in hunts and various other games. From small<ref> Scarre, modest eventsp. 82</ref> Truly, gladiatorial games and beast hunts were an occasional past time during by the second century AD, Roman Republic but became blood sports had evolved into a major industry when the early emperors realized that they could be used to keep the people content. Truly, the idea of “bread and circuses” did not happen overnight in Rome but was an important part of a long and sometimes well-thought out processthe culture.

===References=Conclusion==Bloodsports are perhaps the most intriguing aspect of Roman culture to many modern people. The idea of men fighting to the death for the entertainment of others may be difficult to understand. Still, an examination of the primary sources reveals that it was a logical evolution. From small, modest events, gladiatorial games and beast hunts were an occasional past time during the Roman Republic. Still, they became a major industry when the early emperors realized that they could keep the people content. Truly, the idea of “bread and circuses” did not happen overnight in Rome but was part of a long and sometimes well-thought-out process.