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==Introduction==Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) is widely acknowledged to be the one of the greatest conquerors in history and the equal of any general who has ever lived. He campaigned successfully in Europe, Asia, and Africa and he was victorious in every battle. Perhaps his most audacious campaign was in modern Pakistan and north-west India. His conquests in this region proved to be fleeting. However, Alexander’s Indian campaign was one that was to have very important repercussions for both the Hellenistic and the Indian World. The invasion of India by the great Macedonian was to lead to the establishment of a Greek population in India, increased contacts between the two great cultures and very important cultural exchanges, which influenced both the development of Hellenistic philosophy and Buddhism.__NOTOC__[[File: PtolemyCoinWithAlexanderWearingElephantScalp.jpg|200px250px|thumb|left| A coin commemorating Alexander’s conquests in India]]

==Background==In 333 Alexander the Great (356-323 BC Phillip II ) is widely acknowledged to be one of Macedonia was assassinated the greatest conquerors in history and Alexander became kingthe equal of any general who has ever lived. He campaigned successfully in Greece Europe, Asia, and the Balkans Africa and after securing his kingdom’s borders he launched an invasion of the Persian Empire. Alexander portrayed himself as avenging the two earlier invasions of Greece by the Persians <ref>Plutarch. Life of Alexander, 5, 17</ref>. In a series of devastating campaigns, he seized the Persian Empire and ended the Achaemenid Dynastywas victorious in every battle. Alexander then campaigned to extend Perhaps his control over the former Persian satrapies most audacious campaign was in modern Uzbekistan Pakistan and Afghanistan (328north-327 BC)west India. The Achaemenids had also established some satrapies His conquests in modern Pakistan and Alexander wanted to add these this region proved to his Empire. The Macedonian monarch was first drawn to the Indian sub-continent by the desire to complete the conquest of the Persian Empirebe fleeting. However, it seemed Alexander’s Indian campaign was one that at some date that he decided was to invade India, which he like other Greeks, believed was have significant repercussions for both the end of Hellenistic and the world <ref> Plutarch, 6Indian World. 4</ref>. At this time, The invasion of India referred to the territory occupied by the modern state of that name and also the present-day nation of Pakistan. It great Macedonian was one of to lead to the most populous and urbanized parts establishment of the Ancient World and had a culture every bit as rich as that of Ancient Greece. There were a series of large of sophisticated states Greek population in the subcontinent. Much of Northern India was controlled by , increased contacts between the powerful Nanda Empire, while in what is now Bengaltwo great cultures and significant cultural exchanges, which influenced both the Gangaridai Empire, reputedly could field a force development of 3,000 war-elephantsHellenistic philosophy and Buddhism. [[File: Ashoka's visit to the Ramagrama stupa Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern gateway. jpg|200px|thumb|left| The Emperor Asoka from a frieze in India]]

==Alexander’s Invasion of India==Background====The invasion In 333 BC Phillip II of India Macedonia was a logical step following assassinated, and Alexander became king. He campaigned in Greece and the Macedonian’s king’s campaigns in BactriaBalkans, and after securing his kingdom’s borders, he launched an invasion of the Persian Empire. There had been a major rebellion launched against Alexander portrayed himself as avenging the two earlier invasions of Greece by a local warlord the Persians.<ref>ArrianPlutarch. Campaigns Life of Alexander, 125, 5617</ref>In a series of devastating campaigns, he seized the Persian Empire and ended the Achaemenid Dynasty. After Alexander then campaigned to extend his control over the conqueror suppressed this revolt he turned his attention to warformer Persian satrapies in modern Uzbekistan and Afghanistan (328-like tribes 327 BC).  The Achaemenids had also established some satrapies in Afghanistanmodern Pakistan, who had aided the rebellious Bactrians. and Alexander attacked tribal confederations in the Hindu Kush valleys of Afghanistan and Pakistan <ref>McCrindle, J. Wwanted to add these to his Empire. The Invasion of India Macedonian monarch was first drawn to the Indian sub-continent by Alexander the Great as Described by Arriandesire to complete the conquest of the Persian Empire. However, Q Curtiusit seemed that at some date that he decided to invade India, Diodoruswhich he like other Greeks, Plutarchbelieved was the end of the world.<ref> Plutarch, and Justin6. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co, 1893), p 674</ref>. He conquered these tribes, with great loss At this time, India referred to the territory occupied by the modern state of life that name and ravaged their lands and then marched his forces down also the Indus River and he entered present-day nation of Pakistan. It was one of the powerful kingdom most populous and urbanized parts of King Paurava (or Porus to the Greeks). This king Ancient World and had a very large army and many war-elephants, and he took up culture every bit as rich as that of Ancient Greece. There were a defensive position on series of large of sophisticated states in the River Hydaspes in what is now modern Punjab. The river subcontinent. Much of Northern India was swollen controlled by heavy Monsoon rainsthe powerful Nanda Empire, but Alexander was able to cross the river and surprise the Indians while in what is now Bengal, the rear. There then followed Gangaridai Empire, reputedly could field a terrible battleforce of 3, which Alexander won, but it came at a terrible human cost000 war-elephants. Alexander made Paurava a subordinate ruler and he absorbed much  ====Alexander’s Invasion of Punjab into his realms <ref>McCrindleIndia====[[File: Gandhara, p 118</ref>testa di buddha, I-III sec. jpg|250px|thumb|left| An example of Greco-Buddhist sculpture]]The great conqueror invasion of India was determined to press on to a logical step following the Indian heartland, the Gangetic plains, However, the Macedonian kingMacedonian’s king’s campaigns in Bactria. There had been a major rebellion launched against Alexander by a local warlord.<ref>Arrian. Campaigns of Alexander, 12, was forced to overcome war-56</ref> After the conqueror suppressed this revolt; he turned his attention to war-like tribes in his rear and he captured Afghanistan, who had aided the almost impregnable mountain fortress rebellious Bactrians. Alexander attacked tribal confederations in the Hindu Kush valleys of Aornos (326 BC)Afghanistan and Pakistan. After securing his rear and flanks<ref>McCrindle, the king decided to invade Northern IndianJ. W. His soldiers were becoming restless, they had not seen their homes in years and were fearful The Invasion of India by Alexander the powerful Nanda and Gangaridai armiesGreat as Described by Arrian, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, with their many war-elephantsand Justin. His army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas RiverWestminster: Archibald Constable & Co, 1893) , p 67</ref>  He conquered these tribes, with great loss of life and demanded that Alexander turn back ravaged their lands and then marched his forces down the Indus River and abandon he entered the powerful kingdom of King Paurava (or Porus to the campaignGreeks). The This king attempted to persuade them to continue but he failed had a vast army and after a standmany war-offelephants, and he relented <ref>Plutarch, 7, 6</ref>took up a defensive position on the River Hydaspes in what is now modern Punjab. He retreated back into modern Pakistan and began to campaign against Heavy Monsoon rains swelled the powerful Malian triberiver, who lived near modern Multan but Alexander was able to cross the river and surprise the Indians in Pakistanthe rear. After There then followed a siegeterrible battle, which Alexander won, he subdued the Malians but received it came at a near-fatal wound during the fightingterrible human cost. This wound is believed by many to have led to Alexander made Paurava a subordinate ruler, and he absorbed much of Punjab into his deathrealms. Despite his severe wound Alexander conquered a large number of tribes and reached <ref>McCrindle, p 118</ref>  The great conqueror was determined to press on to the Indian Ocean coast of modern Pakistan. He then returned to Persia via heartland, the Great Gedoresian DesertGangetic plains, during which he lost much of However, the Macedonian king, was forced to overcome war-like tribes in his army to thirst rear and hunger. He divided he captured the almost impregnable mountain fortress of Aornos (326 BC). After securing his conquests into four satrapies rear and he left behind a considerable army under Peithon <ref>McCrindleflanks, p 115</ref>the king decided to invade Northern Indian. After Alexander the Great’s death, his generals fought a series of civil warsHis soldiers were becoming restless, as they tried to carve out independent states out had not seen their homes in years and were fearful of his Empire<ref> Bosworth, Albert Brian. Conquest the powerful Nanda and Empire: Gangaridai armies, with their many war-elephants. His army mutinied at the reign of Alexander Hyphasis River (the Great (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), p 398</ref>modern Beas River) and demanded that Alexander turn back and abandon the campaign.  The Greek armies in India returned king attempted to the west persuade them to take part in these wars sometime in 316 BC. Chandragupta Maurya of Magadha founded the Maurya Empirecontinue but he failed, and after a stand-off, he overthrew the Nanda Empire in 321 BCrelented. The course of events after this are not certain<ref>Plutarch, 7, because of the fragmented nature of the sources. It appears that Chandragupta invaded the Macedonian territories in the Punjab 6</ref> He retreated into modern Pakistan and Sind. At this time Seleucus was began to campaign against the most powerful general Malian tribe, who lived near modern Multan in the eastern territories of the Alexandrine EmpirePakistan. After a siege, sought to reconquer he subdued the satrapies lost Malians but received a near-fatal wound during the fighting. This wound is believed by many to have led to the founder of the Mauryan dynastyhis death. There followed the Seleucid–Mauryan War fought between 305 Despite his severe wound Alexander conquered a large number of tribes and 303 BCreached the Indian Ocean coast of modern Pakistan. Details of He then returned to Persia via the war are not known but it appears that Chandragupta emerged as the victorGreat Gedoresian Desert, during which he lost much of his army to thirst and hunger. Seleucus ceded most if not all of the Alexandrine He divided his conquests in India to the Mauryan Empire into four satrapies, and in return he received 500 war elephantsleft behind a considerable army under Peithon. <ref> A. B. BosworthMcCrindle, The Legacy of p 115</ref>  After Alexanderthe Great’s death, Oxford University Presshis generals fought a series of civil wars,. These elephants were used by Seleucus in as they tried to carve out independent states out of his great victory at Ipsus (301 BC)Empire. Later there were extensive diplomatic <ref>Bosworth, Albert Brian. Conquest and trading contacts established between Empire: the reign of Alexander the Hellenistic and Indian world. [[File: GandharaGreat (Cambridge, testa di buddhaCambridge University Press, 1993), I-III sec.jpg|200px|thumb|left| An example p 398</ref> The Greek armies in India returned to the west to take part in these wars sometime in 316 BC. Chandragupta Maurya of Greco-Buddhist sculpture]]==The Greeks in India==Magadha founded the Maurya Empire after he overthrew the Nanda Empire in 321 BC.  There are several Indian sources that indicate that Alexander left a large number The course of Greek colonists in his newly acquired territoriesevents after this is not certain, who are referred to as Yavanasbecause of the fragmented nature of the sources. It appears that there were a large number of Greek settlements Chandragupta invaded the Macedonian territories in India. They continued to speak Greek the Punjab and remained a distinct ethnic group in Northern IndiaSind. The great Buddhist Emperor Asoka issued edicts in Greek <ref>. It is also believed that many Greeks were active At this time Seleucus was the most powerful general in the government eastern regions of this great Emperor. The descendants the Alexandrine Empire, sought to reconquer the satrapies lost to the founder of the colonists transplanted by Alexander into India continued to flourish for many yearsMauryan dynasty. In 180 There followed the Seleucid–Mauryan War fought between 305 and 303 BC an army . Details of Greeks returned to Indiathe war are not known, these were but it appears that Chandragupta emerged as the descendants victor. Seleucus ceded most if not all of the colonies established Alexandrine conquests in Bactria. The India to the Mauryan Empire fell after the death of Asoka , and his left a power vacuum in north-west India. A powerful Greek Bactrian king Demeter 1 conquered a large area of Afghanistan return, he received 500 war elephants<ref>SinghA. B. Bosworth, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education IndiaThe Legacy of Alexander (Oxford University Press, 2008), p 118156</ref>. Later kings ruled parts of the Punjab and Gujarat Seleucus used these elephants in the second century ADhis great victory at Ipsus (301 BC). The greatest Indo-Greco king was Meander I who ruled a large kingdom in what is now Pakistan Later there were extensive diplomatic and trading contacts established between the Hellenistic and the Indian Punjabworld. After his death little is known about the Indo-Greek kingdoms, the last known was that located  ====The Greeks in eastern Punjab, that was ruled by a monarch called Strato I (10 BC)India====[[File: Menander portrait. jpg|250px|thumb|left| A portrait of However, there were some small Meander I Soter c 160 AD]]Several Indian sources indicate that Alexander left a large number of Greek statelets that endured colonists in remote areas until the 1st century ADhis newly acquired territories, who are referred to as Yavanas. Alexander’s invasion had resulted, directly and indirectly in the establishment It appears that there were a large number of a Greek presence settlements in North-West India for over 300 years. [[File: Menander portraitThey continued to speak Greek and remained a distinct ethnic group in Northern India.jpg|200px|thumb|left| A portrait of Meander I Soter c 160 AD]]==Graeco-Buddhism ==The Mauryan The great Buddhist Emperor Asoka was keen to spread the Buddhist faith and he sent missionaries to the Greeks who lived in his realms and in Bactriaissued edicts in Greek. It seems is also believed that many descendants Greeks were active in the government of Alexander’s colonists and soldiers became followers of the Buddha and that there are even documented examples of Greek Buddhist monksthis great Emperor. Following the collapse The descendants of the Mauryan Empirecolonists transplanted by Alexander into India continued to flourish for many years. In 180 BC an army of Greeks returned to India, these were the descendants of the colonies established in Bactria. The Mauryan Empire fell after the death of Asoka and his left a unique Grecopower vacuum in north-Buddhism developed, a combination of Hellenistic and Indian elements west India. A powerful Greek Bactrian king Demeter 1 conquered a large area of Afghanistan.<ref>Singh, p 118</ref>. This syncretic religion influenced the development Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the Mahayana tradition in Buddhism and its pantheon of deities12th Century. The Indo-Greek kingdoms became important centres Pearson Education India, 2008), p 118</ref> Later kings ruled parts of Buddhism the Punjab and they were instrumental Gujarat in the spread of the religion into Central Asia and ultimately into China. second century AD. The longgreatest Indo-term consequences of Alexander’s invasion were Greco king was Meander I who ruled a chain of events that decisively influenced the development of Buddhism large kingdom in what is now Pakistan and helped the spread of that faithIndian Punjab. ==After his death little is known about the Indo-Greek impact on India art==The Greeks influenced every people kingdoms, the last known was that located in eastern Punjab, that they encountered. The also had was ruled by a profound impact on India culture especially its art and architecturemonarch called Strato I (10 BC). It seems that the Greeks continued to use architectural styles’ such as However, some small Indian Greek statelets endured in remote areas until the Ionian 1st century AD. Alexander’s invasion had resulted, directly and this was to influence Indian designs. Columns found indirectly in the ruins establishment of the Mauryan Palace clearly owe a debt to the Yavanas. There have even been suggestions that Greek temples influenced the development of Indian templesGreek presence in North-West India for over 300 years.  <dh-ad/> ====Graeco-Buddhism ====The influence of Greek sculpture on Indian art is evident. Many Yavanas became Buddhists Mauryan Emperor Asoka was keen to spread the Buddhist faith, and they developed a unique artistic style, known as Greco-Buddhist. This was highly influential on the development of Indian artistic styleshe sent missionaries to the Greeks who lived in his realms and Bactria. It is widely held seems that the Bactrian Greeks were the first to represent many descendants of Alexander’s colonists and soldiers became followers of the Buddha in human form and began a tradition that exists to this daythere are even documented examples of Greek Buddhist monks. The Greeks in India were master Following the collapse of the numismatic art. Their coins are spectacular Mauryan Empire, a unique Greco-Buddhism developed, a combination of Hellenistic and influenced Indian coinage for many centurieselements. Some <ref>Singh, p 118</ref>  This syncretic religion influenced the development of the first representations of Hindu Mahayana tradition in Buddhism and its pantheon of deities were represented on Greco. The Indo-Bactrian coins Greek kingdoms became important centers of Buddhism, and this has established a precedent that also exists to this daythey were instrumental in the spread of the religion into Central Asia and ultimately into China. ==India and Greek PhilosophyThe long-term consequences of Alexander’s invasion were a chain of events that decisively influenced the development of Buddhism and helped the spread of that faith. ====Greek impact on India is home to several major religions, which have strong traditions of metaphysical speculationart====The Greeks influenced every people that they encountered. For example, it was the birthplace of Jainism, Buddhism The also had a profound impact on India culture especially its art and Hinduismarchitecture. There is a strong tradition of asceticism in It seems that the Greeks continued to use architectural styles’ such as the Ionian and this was to influence Indian thought and it has produced sophisticated theories of ethics and epistemologydesigns. Ancient histories inform us Columns found in the ruins of the Mauryan Palace owe a debt to the Yavanas. There have even been suggestions that Greek temples influenced the Greeks who invaded India were impressed by local ascetics development of Indian temples. The influence of Greek sculpture on Indian art is evident.  Many Yavanas became Buddhists, and holy men, whom they called gymnosophists <ref>Plutarchdeveloped a unique artistic style, 5known as Greco-Buddhist. 8 </ref> Alexander, who had been tutored by Aristotle, had an interest This was highly influential in the development of Indian artistic styles. It is widely held that the Bactrian Greeks were the first to represent the Buddha in philosophy human form and he was accompanied on his invasion by a number began a tradition that exists to this day. The Greeks in India were master of philosophersthe numismatic art. One of these was Pyrrho, Their coins are spectacular and he was apparently influenced by Buddhist notions Indian coinage for many centuries. Some of the first representations of epistemology. This led him to adopt a philosophical scepticism and his theories have been very influentialHindu deities were represented on Greco-Bactrian coins, and this has established a precedent that also exists to this day. It is often held that Indian doctrines influenced the Cynic school of thought. There are undoubtedly many similarities between Cynics  ====India and Indian philosophies such as JainismGreek Philosophy==== India is home to several major religions, especially in their rejection which have strong traditions of society and materialismmetaphysical speculation. HoweverFor example, it was the Cynics had developed birthplace of Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. There is a strong tradition of asceticism in Athens before Alexander’s invasionIndian thought, and it has produced sophisticated theories of ethics and epistemology. The Cynic philosopher Onescrithes recorded his conversation with a Brahmin and possibly Jain monks and, it is possible Ancient histories inform us that this influenced the development of later Cynics thoughtGreeks who invaded India were impressed by local ascetics and holy men, which remained influential, in Antiquity, until the Christianization of the Empire whom they called gymnosophists <ref> Mc EvillyPlutarch, Thomas5. The shape of ancient thought. Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian philosophies” (Allworth Press, New York 2002), pp 290-2988 </ref>.==Conclusion==Alexander Alexander, who had been tutored by Aristotle, had failed to achieve his objectives an interest in India philosophy and he was accompanied by his conquests were fleetinginvasion by a number of philosophers. Yet the Macedonian’s campaign  One of these was Pyrrho, and Buddhist notions of epistemology influenced him. This led him to adopt a philosophical skepticism, and his theories have far-reaching consequencesbeen very influential. The Alexandrine invasion was to result in a Greek presence in Northern India for at least three centuriesIt is often held that Indian doctrines influenced the Cynic school of thought. Greek communities There are undoubtedly many similarities between Cynics and later Indo-Greek Kingdoms played a very important role Indian philosophies such as Jainism, especially in the history their rejection of society and materialism. However, the region for centuriesCynics had developed in Athens before Alexander’s invasion. The presence of Greeks was to have Cynic philosopher Onescrithes recorded his conversation with a profound cultural impact on India Brahmin and possibly Jain monks and influenced , it in a crucial period. This is evident in possible that this influenced the art, coinage and architecture ofdevelopment of later Cynics thought, which remained influential, in Antiquity, first until the Mauryan and later Christianization of the Gupta EmpiresEmpire. However<ref> Mc Evilly, the Greeks Thomas. The shape of ancient thought. Comparative Studies in India Greek and in nearby Bactria came to be influenced by Indian culture and especially its religion. Many Greeks first in India and later in Bactria became Buddhists and this led to the creation of a distinct form of Buddhism. Grecophilosophies” (Allworth Press, New York 2002), pp 290-Buddhism was decisive 298</ref> ====Conclusion====Alexander had failed to achieve his objectives in the development of the creed first preached India, and his conquests were fleeting. The Macedonian’s campaign was to have far-reaching consequences. The Alexandrine invasion was to result in a Greek presence in Northern India for at least three centuries. Greek communities and later Indo-Greek Kingdoms played a critical role in the history of the region for centuries. The presence of Greeks was to have a profound cultural impact on India and influenced it in a crucial period. This is evident in the art, coinage, and architecture of, first the Mauryan and later the Gupta Empires.  However, the Greeks in India and nearby Bactria came to be influenced by the Buddha and helped to spread it into Central Asia. Finally, it seems that Indian philosophy influenced Hellenistic philosophies, including that of Cynicism and Scepticism. Indian culture and especially its religion. Many Greeks first in India and later in Bactria became Buddhists, and this led to the creation of a distinct form of Buddhism. Greco-Buddhism was decisive in the development of the creed first preached by the Buddha and helped to spread it into Central Asia. Finally, it seems that Indian philosophy influenced Hellenistic philosophies, including that of Cynicism and Scepticism. ====Further Reading==Further Reading==

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