Changes

[[File:Hvalsey church greenland - creative comons.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Figure 1. The Hvalsey Church in Greenland represents part of a Greenland settlement by Norse that was later abandoned.]]__NOTOC__Our changing climate shows many examples where it altered and shaped history. Climate is not a deterministic process , but it does create the conditions that forces people must to adjust their lives to. This leads to societies and cultures that adapt or reflect the climatic conditions prevalent in an area. This is the case as well in In Europe, where we see changing opportunities and challenges for Medieval and Early Modern European societies as the climate changed.

====Early Medieval Europe and Climate====Soon after the fall of the Roman Empire and the emergence of early European kingdoms and societies, the climate during this time mostly appeared to be colder and wetter than conditions today. River floods were more intense during the 500-600s. Between 500-900 CE, glaciers were expanding in the Alps and other northern regions of Europe such as Scandinavia. In northern Europe, agriculture was often on the margins, where crops can be grown in what today would be a typical year during the summer months.

Soon after the fall of the Roman Empire and emergence of early European kingdoms and societies, the climate during this time mostly appeared to be colder and wetter than conditions today. Flooding in rivers seemed more intense during the 500-600s. Between 500-900 CEHowever, glaciers were expanding in the Alps and other northerly regions of Europe such as Scandinavia. In northern Europe, agriculture was often on the margins, where crops can be grown in what today would be a typical year during the summer months. However, increased persistence of cloudy weather, a large amount of rain, and generally colder conditions could lead to increased crop failures during the summer months in the earliest phases of the Medieval period. This change has led some scholars to believe at least some of the Norse and Dane movements, who which we call the Vikings, that occurred by the 8th century occurred due to these cooler conditions. It simply just became more difficult for agriculture to be successful in the northern regions of Europe, leading to increased dependence on raiding or settling new lands that were more productive. In fact, from the 8th to 9th centuries, Viking raids and eventual settlement became more intense, suggesting conditions may have become harsher leading to more bold movements. During this time, large waves of Vikings landed in Europe, including in France, Britain, and areas south of Denmark. Some Viking travelers went even further into Russia and Mediterranean regions, taking enormous risk but such risk may have been considered in light of the situation back in northern Europe.<ref>For more on the Viking and Norse movements and raids as a result of climatic events, see: Lieberman, B. D., & Gordon, E. (2018). <i>Climate change in human history: prehistory to the present</i>. London ; New York: Bloomsbury Academic, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. </ref>

While cooler In fact, from the 8th to 9th centuries, Viking raids and the eventual settlement became more intense, suggesting conditions may have forced some migrations become harsher leading to occur more bold movements. During this time, large waves of Vikings landed in Europe, including in the early Medieval period that forever shaped the history of regions such as Britain and France, at around 950-1250 CEBritain, climate began to take a warmer turnand areas south of Denmark. This period is known for population increases. Cities Some Viking travelers went even further into Russia and trade began to flourish at a greater rate Mediterranean regions, taking the enormous risk but such risk may have been considered in this period. Wine was even made light of the situation back in northern Europe. For the first time since the Roman period, population in cities began to thrive.<ref>For more on cities in Europe in the early Medieval period Viking and how they began to thrive againNorse movements and raids as a result of climatic events, see: ScottLieberman, B. D., & Gordon, TE. (20122018). <i>The city-state Climate change in Europe, 1000-1600human history: hinterland, territory, regionprehistory to the present</i>. Oxford London ; New York: Oxford University PressBloomsbury Academic, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.</ref>

Areas previously not inhabited significantly, While cooler conditions may have forced some migrations to occur in the early Medieval period that forever shaped the history of regions such as GreenlandBritain and France, now became an area for longat around 950-lived Norse colonies during what was called 1250 CE, the Medieval Warm Period. Famous Norse explorers such as Erik the Red in the late 10th century named Greenland as such because they wanted climate began to convince others that it was take a good area to settlewarmer turn. This period is known for population increases. The warming climate made the story somewhat believable Cities and enabled the Norse trade began to settle different areas of Greenland. Climate studies have suggested conditions may have been warmer flourish at a greater rate in this time than period. Wine was even modern conditions or perhaps conditions were similarmade in northern Europe. Erik the Red and his descendants, including Lief Leif Erikson, visited lands they called For the first time since the land of forests and land of wineRoman period, which could have been in reference to North America such as areas in Labrador and Newfoundland. The settlement of L'Anse aux Meadows, in Newfoundland, represents the clearest evidence of Norse settlement population in North America. The Norse also cities began to trade with Native American groups such as the Beothuk and Thule. All of these long-distance travels in regions that have been frozen over in recent history suggest much warmer conditions made these travels possible or certainly easier. However, by around 1400 things seemed to have died out and settlements in Greenland and North America were abandoned by the Norse. Once again, conditions became cooler in the higher latitudesthrive.<ref>For more on cities in Europe in the early Medieval Warm Period period and the Norse explorationshow they began to thrive again, see: HopkinsScott, A., & Hopkins, AT. (20022012). <i>VikingsThe city-state in Europe, 1000-1600: the Norse discovery of America (1st ed)hinterland, territory, region</i>. Oxford ; New York: PowerKids Oxford University Press.</ref>

==Late Areas previously not inhibited significantly, such as Greenland, now became an area for long-lived Norse colonies during what was called the Medieval Warm Period. Famous Norse explorers such as Erik the Red in the late 10th century named Greenland as such because they wanted to convince others that it was a good area to settle. The warming climate made the story somewhat believable and Early Modern Europe and enabled the Norse to settle different areas of Greenland (Figure 1). Climate==studies have suggested conditions may have been warmer at this time than even modern conditions or perhaps conditions were similar.

In Erik the 1300s-1500sRed and his descendants, climate was somewhat stableincluding Lief Leif Erikson, but colder conditions began to become evident. This though did mean many visited lands they called the land of the settlements became harder to continue in regions such as Greenland. Wine making began to retreat southward to central forests and southern Europe. Populations did recover and expand after the Black Death land of the 14th centurywine, in part this was helped by the favourable climate conditions in the 14th century. The Black Death itself may which could have been triggered by climate events elsewhere about North America such as areas in Asia. By the 16th century, it became even more decisively colderLabrador and Newfoundland. The so-called Little Ice Age began around the 14th century and continued well until the 19th century at around 1850settlement of L'Anse aux Meadows, resulting in about 550 years Newfoundland, represents the clearest evidence of generally colder conditionsNorse settlement in North America. Prolonged colder conditions The Norse also began to lead to more crop failures trade with Native American groups such as well as increased rates of disease. This may have contributed to some of the peasant revolts Beothuk and increased activities of rebellion that gradually reduced the power of the nobility and gave greater power and freedom to the lower classes that is evident in the late Medieval EuropeThule. Another result All of this period was the association of witchcraft and weatherthese long-making. From the late 14th century and through the Little Ice Age, witchcraft became a significant accusation and increasingly used distance travels in Europe, with women regions that have been frozen over in particular targeted with accusationsrecent history suggest much warmer conditions made these travels possible or certainly easier. Witchcraft soon became associated with the power However, by around 1400 things seemed to shift the climate have died out and the fact that rivers froze Norse abandoned settlements in Greenland and crops failed led these accusations to become more commonNorth America. Marginalized groupsOnce again, such as Jewish communities, were also sometimes blamed for the turn conditions became cooler in the climatehigher latitudes.<ref>For more on the Little Ice Age Medieval Warm Period and its effect in Europethe Norse explorations, see: FaganHopkins, BA. M, & Hopkins, A. (2002). <i>The little ice ageVikings: how climate made history 1300-1850 the Norse discovery of America (1st. paperback ed. 2002)</i>. New York: BasicBooksPowerKids Press.</ref>

There were other cultural responses====Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe and Climate====[[File:56-3625983-800px-pieter-bruegel-the-elder-hunters-in-the-snow-winter-google-art-project.jpg|thumb|left|Figure 2. Paintings such as the "Hunter in the Snow" became more common in the Little Ice Age. ]]In the 16th century1300s-1500s, the climate was somewhat stable, artists but colder conditions began to increasingly use winter and winter-like scenes in their paintingsbecome evident. This was relatively rare before this period. The use though did mean many of clouds and winter scenes appears the settlements became harder to have peaked between 1600-1649 continue in paintings, which may have been among the coldest parts of this periodregions such as Greenland. Ice skating Winemaking began to become a popular sport in many regions of retreat southward to central and southern Europe. From 1608-1814, London had a Frost Fair that included ice skating on Populations did recover and expand after the Thames and other winter activities. The fact that rivers froze deep enough to enable prolonged periods Black Death of ice skating had not occurred before. The fact it has also not existed since the 19th 14th century indicates , in part, this was helped by the favorable climate conditions in the 14th century. Climate events elsewhere in Asia may have become warmer since thentriggered the Black Death itself. In ScotlandBy the 16th century, it is likely curling began to become a popular sport during the became even more decisively colder. The so-called Little Ice age, as long periods of frozen weather enabled this sport to be played for a long period of Age began around the year. By around 14th century and continued well until the mid 19th century, the climate began to take a clear warming trendat around 1850, resulting in temperate about 550 years of generally colder conditions. Prolonged colder conditions once again returning began to lead to many parts of Europe.<ref>For more on how culture was affected by the Little Ice Age, see: Behringer, W. (2010). <i>A cultural history crop failures as well as increased rates of climate</i>. Cambridge, UK ; Malden, MA: Politydisease. </ref>

Perhaps two great conflicts were affected by This cooling may have contributed to some of the Little Ice Age. The first is peasant revolts and increased activities of rebellion that gradually reduced the Thirty Years war, which lasted between 1618-1648. This was a period power of great strife the nobility and religious wars between Protestants gave greater power and Catholics freedom to the lower classes that is evident in German, France, Northern Europe, and other regions across late Medieval Europe being affected. This changed the course Another result of European history, changing this period was the religious makeup of association between witchcraft and weather-making. From the continent late 14th century and weakening through the Catholic Church Little Ice Age, witchcraft became a significant accusation and increasingly used in much of Northern Europe, with women in particular targeted with accusations. It also helped lead Witchcraft soon became associated with the power to shift the rise of France as a major power. This was also was partly triggered by increasing crop failures climate and civil strife caused by climatic events the fact that rivers froze and crops failed led these accusations to interbecome more common. Marginalized groups, such as Jewish communities, were also sometimes blamed for the turn in the climate.<ref>For more on the Little Ice Age and its effect in Europe, see: Fagan, B. M. (2002). <i>The little ice age: how climate made history 1300-community tensions that pushed the different sides into conflict1850 (1st. paperback ed. 2002)</i>. New York: BasicBooks.</ref>

The second great conflict in this time was the French RevolutionThere were other cultural responses. In the late 18th 16th century, increasing crop failures led artists began to the peasants having greater difficulties paying use winter and winter-like scenes in their taxes to the wealth landlords and nobles of Francepaintings increasingly. Soon, the population became fed up with their high taxes and poor harvestsThis was relatively rare before this period. The revolutionary cause gained greater appeal use of clouds and eventually mass riots could not be curtailedwinter scenes appears to have peaked between 1600-1649 in paintings, where eventually which may have been among the Bastille was overrun and eventually Louis XIII was overthrowncoldest parts of this period (Figure 2). A period of blood conflict followed that eventually led Ice skating began to the rise become a popular sport in many regions of NapoleonEurope. In large partFrom 1608-1814, discontent London had a Frost Fair that was created in this period was linked with climatic events that shaped included ice skating on the continent in the late 18th century Thames and other winter activities. The fact that led rivers froze deep enough to the fall enable prolonged periods of ice skating had not occurred before. The fact it has also not existed since the French monarchy and rise of the Napoleonic Age19th century indicates conditions have become warmer since then.

We can see that climate played an important role shaping cultures in ====Conflict and Climate====Perhaps two great conflicts were affected by the region as well as how cultures expressed themselvesLittle Ice Age. From The first is the early Norse explorers who traveled distant region to the French revolutionaries who overthrew their monarchyThirty Years War, arguably Europe's most devastating religious war, climate played some role affecting these eventswhich lasted between 1618-1648. Cultural change also happened in the arts This period saw extraordinary amounts of strife and even sports, where ice skating religious wars between Protestants and paintings were influenced by climate events. While this has occurred Catholics in the recent pastGermany, France, we should perhaps expect the same in the coming ages of Northern Europe , and other Western societiesregions across Europe were also affected by inter-community and state-level strife.

This outbreak of violence changed the course of European history by altering the religious makeup of the continent and weakening the Catholic Church in much of Northern Europe. It also helped lead to the rise of France as a major power. This was also was partly triggered by increasing crop failures and civil strife caused by climatic events that led to inter-community tensions that pushed the different sides into conflict.<ref>For more on the Thirty Years War and conflict that may have been influenced by a colder climate, see: Helfferich, T., & Helfferich, T. (Eds.). (2015). <i>The essential Thirty Years War: a documentary history </i>. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. </ref> The second great conflict in this time was the French Revolution. In the late 18th century, increasing crop failures led to the peasants struggling to pay their taxes to the wealthy landlords and nobles of France. Soon, the population became fed up with their high taxes and poor harvests. As the revolutionary cause gained greater appeal, French authorities struggled to contain mass riots. Eventually, these riots culminated with the storming of the Bastille and Louis the XIII as overthrow. A period of bloody conflict followed that eventually led to the rise of Napoleon. In large part, discontent that was created in this period was linked with climatic events that shaped the continent in the late 18th century that led to the fall of the French monarchy and rise of the Napoleonic Age.<ref>For more on the French Revolution and crop failures as a contributor to the events, see: Jones, P. (1988). <i>The peasantry in the French Revolution</i>. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] ; New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> ====Summary====We can see that climate played an important role in shaping cultures in the region as well as how cultures expressed themselves. From the early Norse explorers who traveled distant regions to the French revolutionaries who overthrew their monarchy, climate played some role affecting these events. Climate was certainly not the only reason these events happened but it played a role as a key context in shaping events. The cultural change also happened in the arts and even sports in part due to climate, where climate events influenced ice skating and paintings. While this has occurred in the recent past, we should perhaps expect the same in the coming ages of Europe and other Western societies. ====References====<references/>