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==Introduction==__NOTOC__[[File:Sofia - Symbolical Burial from the Varna Necropolis.jpg|thumbnail|400px|left|Figure 1. Example of one of the Varna Necropolis graves.]]Gold is first known to have been acquired by ancient human societies in the 4th millennium BC, a time when copper and metals were beginning to be utilized more frequently. This suggests The use of gold expanded during this is a period when because pyrotechnologies improved. As pyrotechnologies improved, allowing metals to be developed such as gold and copper became more substantiallyflexible. In fact, when gold appears in the New World, it also appears to be associated with the early development of pyrotechnologies, suggesting gold develops early as metallurgy developed. This likely also means gold, and its luster properties, were desired early on by societies able to master pyrotechnologies to extract and create gold artifacts.

One [[File:Or de Varna - Nécropole.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Figure 2. A burial of a high status individual at Varna Necropolis; this individual stands out from among the oldest known uses graves and seems to have a substantial amount of gold appears compared to be other graves.]]In the southern Levant, a cave in Bulgaria, the area of Nahal Qanah contained eight artifacts from a site burial context that is called Varna Necropolis or Varna Cemeterysuggests a type of elite burial ground could have been established by the 4th millennium BC. These gold objects were in the form of gold rings. In fact, the find suggests gold could have already become the privy of the most elite in society.<ref>For detailed more information about the Varna NecropolisNahal Qanah cave, see: Ivanov Gopher, Avi, Ivan SimeonovTseviḳah Tsuḳ, and Mai︠a︡ Avramova, edsI. Carmi. 20001996. Varna Necropolis''The Naḥal Qanah Cave: The Dawn Earliest Gold in the Southern Levant''. Monograph Series / Tel Aviv University, Sonia and Marco Nadler ''Institute of European CivilizationArchaeology'', no. Treasures of Bulgaria 112. SofiaTel Aviv: Agatʹo PublInstitute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University Publications Section.</ref> The site is a burial ground were a number of gold artifacts were found to be in clear burial contexts with human skeletons. Surprisingly, out of the more than 200 graves found, many of them contained gold and other metal finds (primarily copper). One individual seemed to have far more gold buried with him, with objects including a gold mace, jewelry, and even a penis sheath made of gold (Figure 1).

[[File:Or de What the finds at Nahal Qanah and Varna - NécropoleNecropolis show is that early from gold's history it had already become an object that differentiated wealth and status in societies.jpg|thumbnail|right|Figure 1In fact, we can say that gold seems to be associated with hierarchy, different levels of power, and different access of wealth at its inception of use. One Clearly this relates to the earliest traits of its beauty and rarity, although it is one of the only types of elements we known that seems to have these cultural attributes true for a large number of societies. Perhaps, though, there are differences in its view, as seen by these early societies. For instance, the finds in the south Levant showed that gold was even more restricted, suggesting it may have only been accessed by the most elite members of society. In both in the Bulgaria and south Levant cases, gold graves was foundin the form of body jewellery; in the majority of early finds of gold known, in fact, gold was often associated as a body adornment, whether for the living or the dead. <ref>For more information on the analysis of the Nahal Qanah finds, see: Shalev, Sariel. 1995. “Metals in Ancient Israel: Archaeological Interperetation of Chemical Analysis.” ''Israel Journal of Chemistry 35'' (2): 109–16.</ref> This suggests gold, at the site of Varna Necropolisvery least, was an element intended for display, where whether to the living or to the high status individual is buried with dead, and can be considered a substantial amount type of goldshowing off perhaps, to impress others, the gods, or even spirits.]]

In Egypt and Mesopotamia, the southern Levanttwo main regions where early urban cultures developed, a cave in gold was used by the area of Nahal Qanah contained eight artifacts from a burial context that suggests a type of elite burial ground could have been established5th millennium BC. In factEgypt, the find suggests significant mining was likely already taking place in areas where gold could have already become the privy deposits were commonly found, mainly in areas of the most elite in societysouthern Egypt and Nubia.<ref>For more information about the Nahal Qanah cavegold mining and gold in Egypt, see: GopherKlemm, Rosemarie, and Dietrich Klemm. 2013. ''Gold and Gold Mining in Ancient Egypt and Nubia: Geoarchaeology of the Ancient Gold Mining Sites in the Egyptian and Sudanese Eastern Deserts''. New York: Springer.</ref> In Mesopotamia, Avithe first gold appears in the 5th millennium BC during the Ubaid period. We begin to get references to gold in texts by the 3rd millennium BC, Tseviḳah Tsuḳshowing it becoming an important object for imports. What early texts also show is that states had a large control of the gold trade, although it was not exclusive to states. Nevertheless, gold became mostly associated with priests/temples and Iroyalty. Private households also traded gold and often did attempt to acquire it as an important long-term holding, but rarely was gold buried by private houses with graves (i. Carmie. 1996, it was probably far too valuable for common households to remove this item from their wealth). <ref>For examples of how gold was possibly used by households in ancient Mesopotamia, see: Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. 1998. ''Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia''. The Naḥal Qanah CaveGreenwood Press “Daily Life through History” Series. Westport, Conn: Earliest Greenwood Press, pg. 123.</ref> Gold , for private households, becomes a way for families to preserve and pass on wealth, given its great value and non-perishable nature.[[File:Peru Zeremonialmesser Sican EthnM.jpg|thumbnail|Figure 3. A ceremonial knife from Peru, dated to 850-1500 AD, showing that gold developed independently in the Southern LevantNew World. ]]In many cases, where gold has been discovered, it was found as an alloy with silver (i. Monograph Series / Tel Aviv Universitye., electrum). At times, gold was also alloyed with lead, indicating that pure gold was generally more rare.<ref>For more information about gold in Mesopotamia, see: Leick, Sonia Gwendolyn. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Mesopotamia. 2nd ed. Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Marco Nadler Institute of ArchaeologyHistorical Eras, no. 1226. Tel AvivLanham: Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University Publications SectionScarecrow Press, pg. 79.</ref>In fact, in addition to providing extra strength, alloys also allow the one to utilize more of gold find to create larger objects that look like gold. This gives an appearance of an even larger gold object.

In By the early 3rd millennium BC, gold becomes symbolic with royal authority in Egypt . One has to remember the Great Pyramid, and Mesopotamiaother pyramids, were adorned with gold, in particular the two main regions where early urban cultures developed, top part of the pyramid was likely made of gold was also used by the 4th millennium BCso that it could shine at a great distance. In part, for Egypt, mining was likely already taking place in areas where the shine of gold deposits were foundresembled the sun's shinning characteristics, probably in areas of southern Egypt or even Nubiarepresenting the chief god Ra for Egyptians. <ref>For more information about description on the qualities of gold mining and gold in Egyptits association with Ra, see: KlemmPerl, RosemarieLeila, and Dietrich KlemmErika Wells. 20131988. Gold ''Mummies, Tombs and Gold Mining in Ancient Egypt and NubiaTreasure : Geoarchaeology Secrets of the Ancient Gold Mining Sites in the Egyptian and Sudanese Eastern Deserts. 2012Egypt''. New YorkLondon : SpringerHodder and Stoughton.</ref> In Mesopotamia, we begin to get references to gold in texts by the 3rd millennium BC, showing it becoming an important object for imports. However, in many cases, where gold has been discovered, it was found as an alloy with silver (i.e., electrum). At times, gold was also alloyed with lead, indicating that pure gold was generally more rare.

By To obtain more gold for both domestic consumption and trade, expeditions became organized by the early 3rd millennium BC, gold becomes symbolic with royal authority in Egypt. Expeditions were now organized authorities for mines containing gold. <ref>For more information about gold expeditions, see: Der Manuelian, Peter, and Thomas Schneider, eds. 2015. ''Towards a New History for the Egyptian Old Kingdom: Perspectives on the Pyramid Age''. Harvard Egyptological Studies, volume 1. Leiden ; Boston: Brill, pg. 445.</ref> In the Indus, by the 3rd millennium BC, and likely earlier, gold was also utilized extensively, reflecting its increased importance for elites and trade. Similar to other regions, gold was generally found as part of electrum, which is also a natural alloy. <ref>For more information about gold in the Indus, see: McIntosh, Jane. 2008. ''The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO’s Understanding Ancient Civilizations Series''. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, pg. 145.</ref> In the New World, the region of the Andes, in Peru specifically, has the earliest dated gold finds, where objects date to around 2000 BC. Interestingly, these early gold finds are in the form of jewelry and found in burial context, similar to the Old World discoveries. <ref> For more information about the earliest gold artefacts from Peru, see: Aldenderfer, M., N. M. Craig, R. J. Speakman, and R. Popelka-Filcoff. 2008. “Four-Thousand-Year-Old Gold Artifacts from the Lake Titicaca Basin, Southern Peru.” ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105'' (13): 5002–5. doi:10.1073/pnas.0710937105. </ref> This could suggest, similar to other regions, that as social hierarchy and stratification became established, gold was one object that differentiated the status of humans within society. In other words, gold becomes associated with wealth and power soon after it begins to be used (Figure 3).

In ==Role in Society==[[File:Reconstructed sumerian headgear necklaces british museum.JPG|thumbnail|Figure 4. The gold headdress of Queen/Priestess Puabi. Gold, by the New World3rd millennium BC, had become associated with royalty and the region religious elite of society in Mesopotamia and Egypt.]] In the Andescases where gold was found at relatively early dates, in Peru specificallyseveral characteristics are evident. For one, has the earliest dated gold findsis often found in funerary contexts, where objects date suggesting it was both a status symbol in life but also something to be taken to around 2000 BC have been foundthe next life. Interestingly, these early in many of the finds from the Old and New World indicate that gold finds are , despite its rarity, was from its onset a way to display power in the form afterlife and as a way to remind others of jewelry the power and found in burial context, similar prestige of the individual to the Old World discoveriesmembers of society after they had passed away. This could suggest<ref>Boyle, similar to other regions, that as social hierarchy Robert W. 1987. ''Gold History and stratification became establishedGenesis of Deposits''. Boston, gold was one object that differentiated MA: Springer US. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-1969-6.</ref> This concept continues when we see the status development of humans within societystate societies. In other wordsKingship, and by extension the state, begin to utilize gold becomes associated with wealth more frequently for burials and power soon after in many of these cases it begins was a way to be used (Figure 2)display power in the present and afterlife.

[[File:Peru Zeremonialmesser Sican EthnMPerhaps this reflects the next life or afterlife similarly is characterized by social stratification.jpg|thumbnail|Figure 2In fact, as social hierarchy developed in ancient societies, which seems to be true both in the New and Old Worlds, gold was common among societies that differentiated individuals in power and prestige. A ceremonial knife So in addition to being evident in the finds from Bulgaria and southern Levant, it is also evident in Egypt, Peru, dated to 850-1500 ADand Mesopotamia, showing that gold developed independently in the New Worlddiversity of cultures where this trait develops. ]]

==Role Nevertheless, there are key differences with how gold was treated in Society==early societies. In the ancient Near East, gold was often found as jewelry with women, suggesting women often wore gold as representing family wealth or were often the ones who literally wore the family's wealth. <ref> For further information on women in ancient Near East society and wealth, see: Chavalas, Mark W., ed. 2012. ''Women in the Ancient Near East: A Sourcebook. Routledge Sourcebooks for the Ancient World''. London: Routledge.</ref> One can consider gold and women's jewellery as a repository of the family wealth. This could also be one reason why we find female burials often having large quantities of gold, as not only did they literally carry the gold but the family wealth is best shown off utilizing the female members. For example, the burial of the Queen or Priestess of Puabi from the ancient city of Ur is one example of this (Figure 4).

In the cases where gold was found at relatively early dates, several characteristics are evident. For one, gold is often found in funerary contexts, suggesting it was both a status symbol in life but also something to be taken to the next life. Perhaps this reflects the next life or afterlife similarly is characterized by social stratification. In fact, as social hierarchy developed in ancient societies, which seems to be true both in the New and Old Worlds, gold was often one object that differentiated individuals in many societies. This is evident in finds from Peru, Bulgaria, Egypt, southern Levant, and Mesopotamia. In the ancient Near East, gold was often found as jewelry with women, suggesting women often wore gold as representing family wealth or were often the ones who literally wore the family's wealth. It is also by the 3rd millennium BC that we begin to see gold having more of a trade value, although very likely this occurred earlier. We see evidence of gold being shipped in from distant regions, such as India or Anatolia, in places such as Mesopotamia. In the 2nd millennium BC, when the trade in gold became more substantial in the eastern Mediterranean region, it is during this active time of trade that gold becomes also a standard used to measure value of other commodities. Between In fact, gold, between 1600-1200 BC, or the Late Bronze Age saw gold , was becoming the basis of value for many valuable objects now being traded between Central Asia and the Mediterranean, including metals such as tin and copper. <ref> For more information on the Late Bronze Age gold standard, see: Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen, ed. 2003. ''History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region C. 1380 - 1000 B.C.'' 3. ed., 6. printing. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 2, Pt. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.</ref> However, this was a relatively exceptional period, as in most other Bronze Age periods silver was considered the more common standard, given its greater prevalence.<ref>For a history of gold and its role in ancient societies, see: Bernstein, Peter L. 2004. The Power of Gold: The History of an Obsession. Illustrated ed. New York: Wiley. </ref>

==Evolution of Gold==During the 1st millennium BC, by around the 6th century BC in the Near East and eastern Mediterranean Hellenistic states, we begin to see coins now utilized with gold. <ref>For more on the evolution of early coins and gold coins, see: Leslie Kurke. 1999. Coins, Bodies, Games and Gold. The Politics of Meaning in Archaic Greece. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref> In fact, it is one of the first metals to be fashioned into coins, suggesting coinage gold coins and gold coins i general were used first intended for high value exchange. While this largely reflects gold’s role as an object utilized for trade and exchange, it now also shows royal authority was beginning to stamp gold with iconography as a way to show government-level backing. This helps establish derives from the concept of currency gold and standardized value more substantially. The concept accelerates royalty we had seen in the late 1st third millennium BC across the Mediterranean worldgraves and other royal or high elite status. In effect, where coinage and gold became associated with top-level currency become established as the privy of the state <ref>For a history and utilized for high value exchanges. This concept presentation of types of ancient gold currency continues coins, see Friedberg, Arthur L., Ira S. Friedberg, and was retained into Robert Friedberg. 2003. ''Gold Coins of the World: From Ancient Times to the modern eraPresent: An Illustrated Standard Catalogue with Valuations''. 7th ed. Clifton, N.J: Coin and Currency Institute.</ref>

Gold seems to be one of these objects What the example shows is that has independent origins in many societies in the New and Old worlds (the Americasgold had, Asiavery early, and Africa). This suggests the qualities of gold as being attractive to human societies seems almost universal or innate. Gold utilization in societies evolves over time established itself as a basis for economiesmetal distinct from all other metals. By the time currency or coins are used, gold becomes It quickly became a high level standard prestige good that royal authority supports and uses changed media, such as a basis in economic exchange by placing coinage, but the image prestige continued irrespective of the king on currency. This helps to standardize its value media and this concept continues into the modern era, while gold’s value and importance to society has only increased since ancient periods.

[[Category:Metal Economic History]]