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[[File:6884873348 18e22447cb b.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Figure 1. Aristotle's understanding shaped European thought on weather observations for over two millennia.]]
We have increasingly become accustomed to seeing the impact of major hurricanes and weather phenomena on communities. Fortunately, over the 20th and 21st centuries, weather monitoring technologies, such as radar, have allowed us to obtain much more warning before events occur. However, weather monitoring has had a long historical road, as past and modern societies have always had a desire to know what would happen to their crops, homes and livelihoods.
====Early Development====By the 3rd millennium BCE, seasonality and its regularity was recorded. Early weather recording often related to astronomical observations, as seasonal changes, celestial phenomena, and timekeeping were seen as being related. Some of the earliest detailed records of meteorological data derive from ancient Mesopotamia from the 8th century BCE. During that time, a record spanning some six hundred years seems to have been collected that described weather phenomena, often focusing on difficult or bad weather. While the texts often focus on omens, particularly what might happen after a weather phenomenon such as storms occured, the compiling of the data suggests a type of forecasting was intended by the compilation. In effect, the records may have been an attempt to correlate weather events with other events using long-term data, including political, economic and other important matters.<ref>For more on early Mesopotamian records, see: Taub, L.C. (2003) <i>Ancient meteorology. Sciences of antiquity</i>. London ; New York, Routledge, pg. 16-17.</ref> Early records from Mesopotamia also indicate how celestial objects often foreshadowed weather events. For instance, a halo around the moon portends rain and flooding. <ref>For more on weather events and celestial phenomena, see: Teague, K.A. & Gallicchio, N. (2017) <i>The evolution of meteorology: a look into the past, present, and future of weather forecasting </i>. Hoboken, NJ, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, pg. 3-4.</ref>
In China, records often seemed neutral as to the types of weather data kept. By the 3rd millennium 13th century BCE, seasonality the Chinese were attempting to record amount of rainfall, types of precipitation (sleet vs. rain) and its regularity was recordedtemperature. Early weather recording often related The Chinese, similar to astronomical observationsMesopotamia, as seasonal changes and time keeping were seen also saw their weather as being related. Some of with the earliest detailed records whims of meteorological data derive from ancient Mesopotamia from the 8th century BCE. During gods or their behavior that time, a detailed record spanning some six hundred years seems the gods decided to have been collected that described weather phenomena, often focusing on difficult punish or bad weatherreward. While Records also indicate understanding of the texts often focus on omens, particularly what might happen after a weather phenomenon hydrologic cycle and how distant events such as storms, rainfall in the compiling mountains could influence flooding. The concept of the data suggests a type of forecasting Yin and Yang was intended by the compilation. In effect, the records may have been an attempt related to correlate weather events with other events, including political, economic where a balance between hot and cold and other important mattersopposites in weather were necessary for society to be balanced.<ref>For more on In effect, this is early Mesopotamian records, see: Taub, L.C. (2003) <i>Ancient meteorology. Sciences evidence of antiquity</i>. London ; New York, Routledge, pg. 16-17.</ref> Early records from Mesopotamia also indicate how celestial objects often foreshadowed weather events. For instance, a halo around the moon portends rain began to also shape philosophy and floodingconcepts of spiritual as well as physical balance in life. <ref>For more on Chinese weather events and celestial phenomenabeliefs, see: Teague, K.A. & Gallicchio, N. (2017) <i>The evolution of meteorology: a look into the past, present, and future of weather forecasting </i>. Hoboken, NJ, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, pg. 3-4.</ref>
In ChinaAristotle has often been considered a pioneer in meteorology with his book <i>Meteorlogica</i>, records often seemed neutral as to with the title suggesting that our present English term deriving from the types of ancient Greek. Aristotle saw that weather data kept. By was affected by the 13th century BCEfour bodies, the Chinese were attempting to record amount of rainfallnamely fire, air, earth, types of precipitation (sleet vswater. rain) and an indication Many of temperature. The Chinesehis views involved the supernatural, similar to Mesopotamiaand China; however, he made some important observations. For instance, also saw their weather as being related with the whim rising of hot air and the gods or their moral or immoral behaviordescent of cold air. Records He also indicates understanding of understood that the hydrologic cycle and how distant events such as rainfall in the mountains could influence flooding. The concept of Yin and Yang atmosphere was related to weathercomplex, where a balance between hot and cold and other opposites in weather were necessary for society to be balance. In effect, this is early evidence consisting of how weather began to also shape philosophy and concepts of spiritual as well as physical balance in lifemultiple layers (Figure 1).<ref>For more on Chinese weather beliefsAristotle and his early understanding of Meteorology, see: TeagueLettinck, P., Ibn al-Khammār, A. al-K.al-Ḥasan ibn S., Ibn al-Khammār, A. & Gallicchioal-K. al-Ḥasan ibn S., Avempace, Net al. (20171999)Aristotle’s Meteorology and its reception in the Arab world: with an edition and translation of Ibn Suwār’s Treatise on meteorological phenomena and Ibn Bājja’s Commentary on the Meteorology. Aristoteles Semitico-latinus v. 10. Leiden [Netherlands] ; Boston, pgBrill. 4</ref>
Aristotle has often been considered a pioneer in meteorology with his book <i>Meteorlogica</i>, with ====Later Development====[[File:Karte Pomponius Mela rotated.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|Figure 2. Pomponius Mala was one of the title suggesting first to indicate that our present English term deriving from the ancient Greekworld was divisible into climatic zones. Aristotle saw that weather was affected by ]]In the four bodiesRoman Period, namely fireat around 25-50 CE, air Pomponius Mela, earthwho was a geographer, waterformulates a more comprehensive understanding of climatic zones. Many This includes zones that are comparable to our division of his views involved the supernaturalregions into temperate, similar to Mesopotamia and China; howeverarctic, he made some important observations. For instancedesert, the rising of hot air and the descent of cold airtropical zones. He His writings also understood suggest that these zones were related to the atmosphere latitude in which someone was complexin, as more northerly zones generally were colder and more southerly zones had tropical zones. However, within the northern and southern zones, consisting of multiple layerscomparable climatic zones could be found and these affect the weather noticeable in those regions (Figure 2).<ref>For more on Aristotle and his early understanding of MeteorologyPomponius Mala, see: LettinckMela, P.& Romer, Ibn al-Khammār, AF. al-K. al-Ḥasan ibn S., Ibn al-Khammār, A. al-K. al-Ḥasan ibn S., Avempace, et alE. (19991998) Aristotle’s Meteorology and its reception in <i>Pomponius Mela’s description of the Arab world: with an edition and translation of Ibn Suwār’s Treatise on meteorological phenomena and Ibn Bājja’s Commentary on the Meteorology</i>. Aristoteles Semitico-latinus v. 10. Leiden [Netherlands] ; BostonAnn Arbor, BrillUniversity of Michigan Press.</ref>
==Later Development==Other Late Antiquity and early Medieval developments also occurred in India, a region that had developed a strong meteorological tradition already by around 3000 BCE. Varahamihira wrote at around 500 CE about the importance of early rains and it is clear, similar to Chinese knowledge, that rain did not just come from the sky but related to the sun and evaporation. There were also attempts to correlate revenue, or the wider economy, with rainfall, as the timing of the rains was seen as being critical to affecting the wider economy. The types of clouds were seen as being a strong indication of the types of rains one could expect.<ref>For more on Varahamihra, see: Anon (2014) <i>Challenges and opportunities in agrometeorology</i>. Springer.</ref>
In While some observation and understanding of weather phenomena improved in the Roman PeriodMiddle Ages, at around 25-50 CEthere were improvements in optical instruments and observation techniques that allowed better understanding of observations such as rainbows and lightening. It was with Galileo Galilei in the 17th century through the thermoscope, Pomponius Mela, who which was a geographerseries of glass containers and gases that would rise and fall based on temperature, formulates a that more comprehensive significant changes began to emerge in the understanding of climatic zonesweather. This includes zones that are comparable instrument allowed him and others to our division make more accurate measurements of regions into temperatetemperature, arctic, desert, and tropical zonesimproving understanding of temperature fluctuations. His writings This also suggest now meant that these zones were related to the latitude in which someone was inEuropean scientists could move away from Aristotle's concepts of fire, air, water, and earth as more northerly zones generally were colder and more southerly zones had tropical zonesdriving temperature. However, within While it is not fully clear if Galileo was the northern and southern zonesinventor of this device, comparable climatic zones could be found and these affect it is clear that such 17th century innovations did help the understanding of weather noticeable to now develop in those regionssomething more similar to what we would call scientific observation.<ref>For more on Pomponius Malathe thermoscope, see: MelaValleriani, P. & Romer, F.EM. (19982010) <i>Pomponius Mela’s description Galileo engineer. Boston studies in the philosophy of the world</i>science 269. Ann ArborDordrecht [Netherlands] ; London ; New York, University of Michigan PressSpringer, pg. 160.</ref>
Other Late Antiquity ====Modern Technologies====By the 18th century, recording of weather became more standard, with Gabriel Fahrenheit and early Medieval developments also occurred in India, a region Anders Celsius giving us some standard ways we measure temperature that had developed a strong meteorological tradition already by around 3000 BCEare still with us today. Varahamihira wrote at around 500 CE about By the importance of early rains and it is clear1800s, similar Luke Howard began to Chinese knowledgeformulate cloud types in a standard form that allowed better understand of subsequent patterns in rainfall or atmospheric moisture. By 1817, that rain did not just come from Alexander Humboldt came up with the sky but related idea of climatic maps to indicate average global temperature. This began the sun modern measurement and evaporationmonitoring of global temperatures that have affected our own understanding of change such as global climate change. There were The 1830s and 1840s also attempts saw many new types of equipment being utilized for weather monitoring, including measuring barometric pressure, use of storm clocks to correlate revenuemeasure meteorological data, or the wider economy, with rainfalland use of early cameras for weather observation. By 1849, as the timing United States had developed a series of the rains was seen as being critical stations to affecting the wider economymonitor weather with data sent via telegraph. The types This long-distance recording and coordination of clouds were seen as being a strong indication data allowed the understanding of the types of rains one could expectrelationship between vapor pressure and temperature.<ref>For more on Varahamihrathese 18th and early 19th century developments, see: Anon Sherman Hollar (2014ed.) (2013) <i>Challenges Pioneers in the world of weather and opportunities in agrometeorologyclimatology</i>. SpringerInventors and innovators. 1st ed. New York, NY, Britannica Educational Pub. in association with Rosen Educational Services.</ref> \
While some observation In the late 19th century, more complex and understanding of larger weather phenomena improved in the Middle Ages, there were improvements in optical instruments and observation techniques that allowed better understanding of observations understood, such as rainbows and lighteninghurricanes. It was with Galileo Galilei Weather monitoring stations were utilized in the 17th made the thermoscopeAtlantic to begin to record and provide warning about hurricane developments. By 1904, which was Australia developed a series of glass containers unified meteorological service to better standardize and gases that would rise and fall based on temperaturemonitor national weather. This allowed him to make more accurate measurements of temperatureHowever, improving the next major game-changer for understanding and monitoring weather occurred with the development of temperature fluctuationsradar in the 1940s. This also now meant that European scientists could move away from Aristotle's concepts The Great Atlantic Hurricane of fire, wind, water, 1944 was the first hurricane recorded and earth as driving temperaturemonitored using radar. While it is not fully clear if Galileo was the inventor of radar technologies have changed, this device, it is clear that such 17th century innovation did help has remained among the understanding of weather to now develop key ways in something more similar which we still can monitor and use data from to what we would call scientific observationforecast where hurricanes can go.<ref>For more on the thermoscopelate 19th and early 20th century developments, see: VallerianiGalati, MG. (20102016) Galileo engineer. Boston studies in the philosophy <i>100 years of science 269radar</i>. Dordrecht [Netherlands] ; London ; New YorkCham, Springer, pg. 160.</ref>
==Modern Technologies==Since the 1970s, while technologies have improved, there has been also more devotion by institutions for weather monitoring. This has included the military, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NASA, as well as many local entities that provide near constant weather observations.<ref>For more on the US weather services, see: Bruce E. Johansen (ed.) (2017) <i>Climate change: an encyclopedia of science, society, and solutions</i>. Santa Barbara, California, ABC-CLIO, an imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC.</ref>
====Summary====Weather monitoring has been observed since the early development of writing. Although many early observations appear to be superstitious, from our perspective, it is also evident that scientific knowledge developed over time as relationships between observed weather phenomena and what preceded the event became better established. Weather monitoring has always been a major concern for societies that have been fixed to the land because of their urban or agricultural systems or simply because the tremendous destruction that ill weather could cause large-scale human systems. Although our instrumentation and scientific understanding has advanced rapidly since the 19th century, simple observations also allowed sometimes accurate predictions to be made and even allowed better preparation. This includes the understanding of the volatility of climate and its potentially detrimental long-term consequences over decades and centuries. The records from Mesopotamia, for example, indicate the appreciation of how long-term monitoring of the climate could be of benefit for future generations.
====References====<references/> [[Category:Wikis]][[Category:History of Science]]
