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==Introduction==Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) is widely acknowledged to be the one of the greatest conquerors in history and the equal of any general who has ever lived. He campaigned successfully in Europe, Asia, and Africa and he was victorious in every battle. Perhaps his most audacious campaign was in modern Pakistan and north-west India. His conquests in this region proved to be fleeting. However, Alexander’s Indian campaign was one that was to have very important repercussions for both the Hellenistic and the Indian World. The invasion of India by the great Macedonian was to lead to the establishment of a Greek population in India, increased contacts between the two great cultures and very important cultural exchanges, which influenced both the development of Hellenistic philosophy and Buddhism.__NOTOC__[[File: PtolemyCoinWithAlexanderWearingElephantScalp.jpg|200px250px|thumb|left| A coin commemorating Alexander’s conquests in India]]==Background==In 333 BC Phillip II of Macedonia was assassinated and Alexander became king. He campaigned in Greece and the Balkans and after securing his kingdom’s borders he launched an invasion of the Persian Empire. Alexander portrayed himself as avenging the two earlier invasions of Greece by the Persians <ref>Plutarch. Life of Alexander, 5, 17</ref>. In a series of devastating campaigns, he seized the Persian Empire and ended the Achaemenid Dynasty. Alexander then campaigned to extend his control over the former Persian satrapies in modern Uzbekistan and Afghanistan (328-327 BC). The Achaemenids had also established some satrapies in modern Pakistan and Alexander wanted to add these to his Empire. The Macedonian monarch was first drawn to the Indian sub-continent by the desire to complete the conquest of the Persian Empire. However, it seemed that at some date that he decided to invade India, which he like other Greeks, believed was the end of the world <ref> Plutarch, 6. 4</ref>. At this time, India referred to the territory occupied by the modern state of that name and also the present-day nation of Pakistan. It was one of the most populous and urbanized parts of the Ancient World and had a culture every bit as rich as that of Ancient Greece. There were a series of large of sophisticated states in the subcontinent. Much of Northern India was controlled by the powerful Nanda Empire, while in what is now Bengal, the Gangaridai Empire, reputedly could field a force of 3,000 war-elephants. [[File: Ashoka's visit to the Ramagrama stupa Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern gateway. jpg|200px|thumb|left| The Emperor Asoka from a frieze in India]]

==Alexander’s Invasion of India==The invasion Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) is widely acknowledged to be one of India was a logical step following the Macedonian’s king’s campaigns greatest conquerors in Bactriahistory and the equal of any general who has ever lived. There had been a major rebellion launched against Alexander by a local warlord <ref>Arrian. Campaigns of AlexanderHe campaigned successfully in Europe, 12Asia, 56</ref>and Africa and he was victorious in every battle. After the conqueror suppressed this revolt he turned Perhaps his attention to war-like tribes most audacious campaign was in Afghanistan, who had aided the rebellious Bactriansmodern Pakistan and north-west India. Alexander attacked tribal confederations His conquests in the Hindu Kush valleys of Afghanistan this region proved to be fleeting. However, Alexander’s Indian campaign was one that was to have significant repercussions for both the Hellenistic and Pakistan <ref>McCrindle, J. Wthe Indian World. The Invasion invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arriangreat Macedonian was to lead to the establishment of a Greek population in India, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarchincreased contacts between the two great cultures and significant cultural exchanges, which influenced both the development of Hellenistic philosophy and JustinBuddhism. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co ====Background====In 333 BC Phillip II of Macedonia was assassinated, 1893), p 67</ref>. and Alexander became king. He conquered these tribescampaigned in Greece and the Balkans, with great loss of life and ravaged their lands and then marched after securing his forces down the Indus River and kingdom’s borders, he entered launched an invasion of the Persian Empire. Alexander portrayed himself as avenging the powerful kingdom two earlier invasions of King Paurava (or Porus to Greece by the Greeks)Persians.<ref>Plutarch. This king had a very large army and many war-elephantsLife of Alexander, 5, 17</ref> In a series of devastating campaigns, he seized the Persian Empire and he took up a defensive position on ended the River Hydaspes in what is now modern PunjabAchaemenid Dynasty. The river was swollen by heavy Monsoon rains, but Alexander was able then campaigned to cross extend his control over the river former Persian satrapies in modern Uzbekistan and surprise the Indians in the rearAfghanistan (328-327 BC). There then followed a terrible battle  The Achaemenids had also established some satrapies in modern Pakistan, which and Alexander won, but it came at a terrible human costwanted to add these to his Empire. Alexander made Paurava a subordinate ruler and he absorbed much The Macedonian monarch was first drawn to the Indian sub-continent by the desire to complete the conquest of Punjab into his realms the Persian Empire. However, it seemed that at some date that he decided to invade India, which he like other Greeks, believed was the end of the world.<ref>McCrindlePlutarch, p 1186. 4</ref>. The great conqueror was determined to press on At this time, India referred to the Indian heartland, territory occupied by the Gangetic plains, However, modern state of that name and also the Macedonian king, present-day nation of Pakistan. It was forced to overcome war-like tribes in his rear one of the most populous and he captured urbanized parts of the almost impregnable mountain fortress of Aornos (326 BC). After securing his rear Ancient World and flanks, the king decided to invade Northern Indianhad a culture every bit as rich as that of Ancient Greece. His soldiers There were becoming restless, they had not seen their homes a series of large of sophisticated states in years and were fearful the subcontinent. Much of Northern India was controlled by the powerful Nanda and Gangaridai armiesEmpire, with their many while in what is now Bengal, the Gangaridai Empire, reputedly could field a force of 3,000 war-elephants. His army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) and demanded that Alexander turn back and abandon the campaign. The king attempted to persuade them to continue but he failed and after a stand ====Alexander’s Invasion of India====[[File: Gandhara, testa di buddha, I-off, he relented <ref>Plutarch, 7, 6</ref>III sec. He retreated back into modern Pakistan and began to campaign against the powerful Malian tribe, who lived near modern Multan jpg|250px|thumb|left| An example of Greco-Buddhist sculpture]]The invasion of India was a logical step following the Macedonian’s king’s campaigns in PakistanBactria. After There had been a siege, he subdued the Malians but received major rebellion launched against Alexander by a near-fatal wound during the fightinglocal warlord. This wound is believed by many to have led to his death<ref>Arrian. Despite his severe wound Campaigns of Alexander conquered a large number of tribes and reached , 12, 56</ref> After the Indian Ocean coast of modern Pakistan. He then returned to Persia via the Great Gedoresian Desert, during which conqueror suppressed this revolt; he lost much of turned his army attention to thirst and hunger. He divided his conquests into four satrapies and he left behind a considerable army under Peithon <ref>McCrindlewar-like tribes in Afghanistan, p 115</ref>who had aided the rebellious Bactrians. After Alexander attacked tribal confederations in the Great’s death, his generals fought a series Hindu Kush valleys of civil warsAfghanistan and Pakistan.<ref>McCrindle, as they tried to carve out independent states out of his Empire<ref> Bosworth, Albert Brian. Conquest and Empire: the reign J. W. The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great (Cambridgeas Described by Arrian, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Cambridge University Pressand Justin. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co, 19931893), p 39867</ref>. The Greek armies in India returned to the west to take part in  He conquered these wars sometime in 316 BC. Chandragupta Maurya tribes, with great loss of Magadha founded the Maurya Empire, after life and ravaged their lands and then marched his forces down the Indus River and he overthrew entered the Nanda Empire in 321 BC. The course of events after this are not certain, because powerful kingdom of King Paurava (or Porus to the fragmented nature of the sourcesGreeks). It appears that Chandragupta invaded the Macedonian territories in the Punjab This king had a vast army and Sind. At this time Seleucus was many war-elephants, and he took up a defensive position on the most powerful general River Hydaspes in what is now modern Punjab. Heavy Monsoon rains swelled the eastern territories of the Alexandrine Empireriver, sought but Alexander was able to reconquer cross the satrapies lost to river and surprise the founder of Indians in the Mauryan dynastyrear. There then followed the Seleucid–Mauryan War fought between 305 and 303 BC. Details of the war are not known a terrible battle, which Alexander won, but it appears that Chandragupta emerged as the victorcame at a terrible human cost. Seleucus ceded most if not all of the Alexandrine conquests in India to the Mauryan Empire Alexander made Paurava a subordinate ruler, and in return he received 500 war elephantsabsorbed much of Punjab into his realms.<ref> A. B. BosworthMcCrindle, p 118</ref>  The Legacy of Alexander, Oxford University Pressgreat conqueror was determined to press on to the Indian heartland, the Gangetic plains, However, the Macedonian king,. These elephants were used by Seleucus was forced to overcome war-like tribes in his great victory at Ipsus rear and he captured the almost impregnable mountain fortress of Aornos (301 326 BC). Later there were extensive diplomatic After securing his rear and trading contacts established between flanks, the Hellenistic and king decided to invade Northern Indian world. [[File: GandharaHis soldiers were becoming restless, testa di buddha, I-III sec.jpg|200px|thumb|left| An example they had not seen their homes in years and were fearful of Grecothe powerful Nanda and Gangaridai armies, with their many war-Buddhist sculpture]]elephants. His army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) and demanded that Alexander turn back and abandon the campaign.  ==The Greeks in India==There are several Indian sources that indicate that Alexander left king attempted to persuade them to continue but he failed, and after a large number of Greek colonists in his newly acquired territoriesstand-off, who are referred to as Yavanashe relented. It appears that there were a large number of Greek settlements in India. They continued to speak Greek and remained a distinct ethnic group in Northern India. The great Buddhist Emperor Asoka issued edicts in Greek <ref>. It is also believed that many Greeks were active in Plutarch, 7, 6</ref> He retreated into modern Pakistan and began to campaign against the government of this great Emperorpowerful Malian tribe, who lived near modern Multan in Pakistan. The descendants of After a siege, he subdued the Malians but received a near-fatal wound during the colonists transplanted fighting. This wound is believed by Alexander into India continued many to have led to flourish for many yearshis death. In 180 BC an army Despite his severe wound Alexander conquered a large number of Greeks returned to India, these were tribes and reached the descendants Indian Ocean coast of the colonies established in Bactriamodern Pakistan. The Mauryan Empire fell after He then returned to Persia via the death of Asoka Great Gedoresian Desert, during which he lost much of his army to thirst and hunger. He divided his conquests into four satrapies, and he left behind a power vacuum in north-west Indiaconsiderable army under Peithon. A powerful Greek Bactrian king Demeter 1 conquered a large area of Afghanistan <ref>SinghMcCrindle, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From p 115</ref>  After Alexander the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education IndiaGreat’s death, 2008)his generals fought a series of civil wars, p 118as they tried to carve out independent states out of his Empire.</ref>Bosworth, Albert Brian. Later kings ruled parts Conquest and Empire: the reign of Alexander the Punjab and Gujarat Great (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), p 398</ref> The Greek armies in India returned to the second century AD. The greatest Indo-Greco king was Meander I who ruled a large kingdom west to take part in these wars sometime in what is now Pakistan and the Indian Punjab316 BC. After his death little is known about Chandragupta Maurya of Magadha founded the Indo-Greek kingdoms, Maurya Empire after he overthrew the last known was that located Nanda Empire in eastern Punjab, 321 BC.  The course of events after this is not certain, because of the fragmented nature of the sources. It appears that was ruled by a monarch called Strato I (10 BC). However, there were some small Indian Greek statelets that endured Chandragupta invaded the Macedonian territories in remote areas until the 1st century ADPunjab and Sind. Alexander’s invasion had resulted, directly and indirectly At this time Seleucus was the most powerful general in the establishment eastern regions of a Greek presence in North-West India for over 300 yearsthe Alexandrine Empire, sought to reconquer the satrapies lost to the founder of the Mauryan dynasty. [[File: Menander portraitThere followed the Seleucid–Mauryan War fought between 305 and 303 BC.jpg|200px|thumb|left| A portrait Details of Meander I Soter c 160 AD]]==Graeco-Buddhism ==The Mauryan Emperor Asoka was keen the war are not known, but it appears that Chandragupta emerged as the victor. Seleucus ceded most if not all of the Alexandrine conquests in India to spread the Buddhist faith Mauryan Empire, and in return, he sent missionaries to the Greeks who lived in his realms and in Bactriareceived 500 war elephants<ref> A. B. It seems that many descendants Bosworth, The Legacy of Alexander’s colonists and soldiers became followers of the Buddha and that there are even documented examples of Greek Buddhist monksAlexander (Oxford University Press, 2008), p 156</ref>. Following the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, a unique Greco-Buddhism developed, a combination of Seleucus used these elephants in his great victory at Ipsus (301 BC). Later there were extensive diplomatic and trading contacts established between the Hellenistic and Indian elements <ref>Singh, p 118</ref>. This syncretic religion influenced the development of the Mahayana tradition world. ====The Greeks in Buddhism and its pantheon of deitiesIndia====[[File: Menander portrait. The Indo-Greek kingdoms became important centres jpg|250px|thumb|left| A portrait of Buddhism and they were instrumental Meander I Soter c 160 AD]]Several Indian sources indicate that Alexander left a large number of Greek colonists in the spread of the religion into Central Asia and ultimately into Chinahis newly acquired territories, who are referred to as Yavanas. The long-term consequences of Alexander’s invasion It appears that there were a chain large number of events that decisively influenced the development of Buddhism and helped the spread of that faithGreek settlements in India. ==They continued to speak Greek impact on and remained a distinct ethnic group in Northern India art==. The Greeks influenced every people that they encounteredgreat Buddhist Emperor Asoka issued edicts in Greek. The It is also had a profound impact on India culture especially its art and architecturebelieved that many Greeks were active in the government of this great Emperor. It seems that The descendants of the Greeks colonists transplanted by Alexander into India continued to use architectural styles’ such as the Ionian and this was to influence Indian designsflourish for many years. Columns found in the ruins In 180 BC an army of Greeks returned to India, these were the Mauryan Palace clearly owe a debt to the Yavanas. There have even been suggestions that Greek temples influenced descendants of the development of Indian templescolonies established in Bactria. The influence Mauryan Empire fell after the death of Greek sculpture on Indian art is evident. Many Yavanas became Buddhists Asoka and they developed his left a unique artistic style, known as Greco-Buddhistpower vacuum in north-west India. This was highly influential on the development A powerful Greek Bactrian king Demeter 1 conquered a large area of Indian artistic stylesAfghanistan. It is widely held that <ref>Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Bactrian Greeks were the first Stone Age to represent the Buddha in human form and began a tradition that exists to this day. The Greeks in 12th Century. Pearson Education India were master , 2008), p 118</ref> Later kings ruled parts of the numismatic art. Their coins are spectacular Punjab and influenced Indian coinage for many centuriesGujarat in the second century AD. Some of the first representations of Hindu deities were represented on The greatest Indo-Greco-Bactrian coins king was Meander I who ruled a large kingdom in what is now Pakistan and this has established a precedent that also exists to this daythe Indian Punjab. ==India and After his death little is known about the Indo-Greek Philosophy==India is home to several major religionskingdoms, the last known was that located in eastern Punjab, which have strong traditions of metaphysical speculation. For example, it that was the birthplace of Jainismruled by a monarch called Strato I (10 BC). However, Buddhism and Hinduism. There is a strong tradition of asceticism some small Indian Greek statelets endured in Indian thought remote areas until the 1st century AD. Alexander’s invasion had resulted, directly and it has produced sophisticated theories indirectly in the establishment of ethics and epistemology. Ancient histories inform us that the Greeks who invaded a Greek presence in North-West India were impressed by local ascetics and holy men, whom they called gymnosophists <ref>Plutarch, 5. 8 for over 300 years.  <dh-ad/ref> Alexander, who had been tutored by Aristotle, had an interest in philosophy  ====Graeco-Buddhism ====The Mauryan Emperor Asoka was keen to spread the Buddhist faith, and he was accompanied on sent missionaries to the Greeks who lived in his invasion by a number of philosophersrealms and Bactria. One It seems that many descendants of these was Pyrrho, Alexander’s colonists and he was apparently influenced by Buddhist notions soldiers became followers of epistemology. This led him to adopt a philosophical scepticism and his theories have been very influential. It is often held the Buddha and that Indian doctrines influenced the Cynic school there are even documented examples of thought. There are undoubtedly many similarities between Cynics and Indian philosophies such as Jainism, especially in their rejection Greek Buddhist monks. Following the collapse of society and materialism. However, the Cynics had Mauryan Empire, a unique Greco-Buddhism developed in Athens before Alexander’s invasion. The Cynic philosopher Onescrithes recorded his conversation with , a Brahmin and possibly Jain monks combination of Hellenistic andIndian elements.<ref>Singh, it is possible that this p 118</ref>  This syncretic religion influenced the development of later Cynics thought, which remained influentialthe Mahayana tradition in Buddhism and its pantheon of deities. The Indo-Greek kingdoms became important centers of Buddhism, and they were instrumental in Antiquity, until the Christianization spread of the Empire <ref> Mc Evilly, Thomasreligion into Central Asia and ultimately into China. The shape long-term consequences of Alexander’s invasion were a chain of ancient thought. Comparative Studies in Greek events that decisively influenced the development of Buddhism and Indian philosophies” (Allworth Press, New York 2002), pp 290-298</ref>.helped the spread of that faith. ====Greek impact on India art==Conclusion==Alexander The Greeks influenced every people that they encountered. The also had failed to achieve his objectives in a profound impact on India culture especially its art and his conquests were fleetingarchitecture. Yet It seems that the Macedonian’s campaign was Greeks continued to have far-reaching consequences. The Alexandrine invasion use architectural styles’ such as the Ionian and this was to result influence Indian designs. Columns found in the ruins of the Mauryan Palace owe a Greek presence in Northern India for at least three centuriesdebt to the Yavanas. There have even been suggestions that Greek communities and later Indo-Greek Kingdoms played a very important role in temples influenced the history development of the region for centuriesIndian temples. The presence influence of Greeks was to have a profound cultural impact Greek sculpture on India and influenced it in a crucial period. This Indian art is evident in the art.  Many Yavanas became Buddhists, coinage and architecture ofthey developed a unique artistic style, first the Mauryan and later known as Greco-Buddhist. This was highly influential in the Gupta Empiresdevelopment of Indian artistic styles. However, It is widely held that the Bactrian Greeks were the first to represent the Buddha in India human form and in nearby Bactria came began a tradition that exists to be influenced by Indian culture and especially its religionthis day. Many The Greeks first in India were master of the numismatic art. Their coins are spectacular and later in Bactria became Buddhists and this led to influenced Indian coinage for many centuries. Some of the creation first representations of a distinct form of Buddhism. Hindu deities were represented on Greco-Buddhism was decisive in the development of the creed first preached Bactrian coins, and this has established a precedent that also exists to this day.  ====India and Greek Philosophy==== India is home to several major religions, which have strong traditions of metaphysical speculation. For example, it was the birthplace of Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. There is a strong tradition of asceticism in Indian thought, and it has produced sophisticated theories of ethics and epistemology. Ancient histories inform us that the Greeks who invaded India were impressed by the Buddha and helped to spread it into Central Asia. Finally, it seems that Indian philosophy influenced Hellenistic philosophies, including that of Cynicism and Scepticism. local ascetics and holy men, whom they called gymnosophists <ref>Plutarch, 5. 8 </ref> Alexander, who had been tutored by Aristotle, had an interest in philosophy and he was accompanied by his invasion by a number of philosophers.  One of these was Pyrrho, and Buddhist notions of epistemology influenced him. This led him to adopt a philosophical skepticism, and his theories have been very influential. It is often held that Indian doctrines influenced the Cynic school of thought. There are undoubtedly many similarities between Cynics and Indian philosophies such as Jainism, especially in their rejection of society and materialism. However, the Cynics had developed in Athens before Alexander’s invasion. The Cynic philosopher Onescrithes recorded his conversation with a Brahmin and possibly Jain monks and, it is possible that this influenced the development of later Cynics thought, which remained influential, in Antiquity, until the Christianization of the Empire.<ref> Mc Evilly, Thomas. The shape of ancient thought. Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian philosophies” (Allworth Press, New York 2002), pp 290-298</ref> ====Conclusion====Alexander had failed to achieve his objectives in India, and his conquests were fleeting. The Macedonian’s campaign was to have far-reaching consequences. The Alexandrine invasion was to result in a Greek presence in Northern India for at least three centuries. Greek communities and later Indo-Greek Kingdoms played a critical role in the history of the region for centuries. The presence of Greeks was to have a profound cultural impact on India and influenced it in a crucial period. This is evident in the art, coinage, and architecture of, first the Mauryan and later the Gupta Empires.  However, the Greeks in India and nearby Bactria came to be influenced by Indian culture and especially its religion. Many Greeks first in India and later in Bactria became Buddhists, and this led to the creation of a distinct form of Buddhism. Greco-Buddhism was decisive in the development of the creed first preached by the Buddha and helped to spread it into Central Asia. Finally, it seems that Indian philosophy influenced Hellenistic philosophies, including that of Cynicism and Scepticism. ====Further Reading==Further Reading==

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