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Moreover, the Praetorian Guard the bodyguards of the Emperor often assassinate their master, out of political expediency or sheer greed. For a brief period, Emperor Philip managed to stabilize the situation. However, his assassination marked a new and even darker period in the crisis. Decius succeeded Phillip and he had to deal with a Gothic invasion. He was defeated and killed at the Battle of Abrittus (251 AD). Every year there was a series of barbarian invasions, which would ravage entire provinces. To compound the situation the Parthians in the east were replaced by the Sassanian Empire. They were to prove to be even more formidable enemies of Rome. The Sassanian monarch defeated several Roman armies and even captured Emperor Valerian and his entire army. The apparent failure of the Roman government and army to defend the provinces lead to growing separatism in the provinces and this led to the fragmentation of the Empire. By 268, the empire had split into rival states. Much of western Europe was part of the Gallic Empire. In the east, the great city of Palmyra under Odaenathus had driven back the Persians and created the so-called Palmyrene Empire, which was later ruled by the legendary Queen Zenobia.<ref>Pat Southern. Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen (London, Continuum, 2008), p. 133 </ref>
[[File: 3rd century AD 2.jpg |200px|thumb|left| Emperor Decius who was defeated and killed by the Goths]]
Furthermore, parts of Dacia and the Rhine provinces were occupied by German tribes. No part of the Empire was safe from raiders and even Athens was besieged by Gothic pirates. During the many wars and invasions, pan-Mediterranean trade was severely curtailed. Hyper-inflation became the norm. Agriculture was disrupted, and food shortages were common and another eruption of the plague devasted many urban centers. However, the Empire managed to pull itself back from the abyss under a series of military Emperors. The Roman army remained very formidable and under several Illyrian Emperors, order was restored in the provinces, and the frontiers secured. The recovery began when Claudius II defeated a Gothic invasion and after he died of the plague he was succeeded by his Master of Cavalry, Aurelian in 275 AD. He was a brilliant commander and he defeated several barbarian invasions. He then went on to defeat the Gallic and Palmyrene Empire. However, instability continued after his assassination and it was only with the accession of Diocletian, that the crisis was finally ended. However, it is widely held that the Third Century Crisis permanently weakened the Empire and it ushered in trends that many see as marking the beginning of the end of the world of Antiquity and marking the transition to the Medieval world.<ref> Brown, P, The World of Late Antiquity (W Norton, London, 1971), p. 22 </ref>
====Barbarian Invasions===
