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Directly or indirectly, James Bowie’s (aka Jim Bowie’s ) enigmatic illness during the siege of the Alamo resulted from his own actions. A hearty man of six feet in height, Bowie was a walking contradiction; a slave trader who fought for freedom, a generous and congenial man who called out had his thunderous temper on a whim, and a commanding leader who was prone to binges of sloppy drunkenness. He was determined in his actions and proceeded through life with an indestructible will, yet found himself bed-ridden as he took his last breath. Many suppositions have been made as to the cause of his infirm, including typhoid fever, pulmonary consumption, and traumatic injury. Other possibilities will be proposed in this text and will all lead to the conclusion that by indirect association or direct action, Jim Bowie contributed to his own demise.

Many suppositions have been made as to the cause of his infirm, including typhoid fever, pulmonary consumption, and traumatic injury. Other possibilities will be proposed in this text and will all lead to the conclusion that by indirect association or direct action, Jim Bowie contributed to his demise. ==== Exposure to Yellow Fever ====

Until October 1833 Bowie life continued unabated, but tragedy struck. While in Natchez he learned the news that his wife had passed away due to cholera. This occurred just days after he himself recovered from a bout with yellow fever.<ref>Davis, 361-362.</ref> According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), once having recovered from yellow fever one is usually protected against subsequent infection. This, however, is under ideal circumstances wherein the individual is in optimal physical condition. Alcohol and malnutrition impede the immunity process.<ref>Valerie Carter, RN, BSN, MSN, interview by author, Phoenix, Arizona, April 15, 2010.It has been historically documented that Bowie consumed a great deal of alcohol. Also, malnutrition must be distinguished from under-nutrition in that an individual may be consuming substantial calories that lack nutritional value.</ref>Bowie was not only complicit in transporting infected mosquitoes into North America, he also counteracted his own recovery with his lifestyle choices. ==== Bowie and Booze ====By several accounts, Jim Bowie had a penchant for alcohol to the extent of what we now call, "alcohol abusewas an alcoholic." Anson Jones, a physician who would later become the fourth and final President of the Republic of Texas, had the experience of meeting Bowie and Sam Houston while the two were in consultation at San Felipe. Jones found Houston to be the rowdy leader while he found Bowie “dead drunk”drunk.” <ref>Anson Jones, ''Memorandum and Official Correspondence Relating to the Republic of Texas, Its History and Annexation'' (New York: 1859), 12-13.</ref> The reasons for Bowie’s alcohol abuses have yet to be determined. He undoubtedly suffered from physical pain resulting from him skirmishes and battles that included gunshot wounds. Depression is another possible explanation for his over-indulgences due to the loss of his wife and child to cholera in 1833. Regardless of why he drank, he continued to do so at an accelerated rate. [[File:William_b_travis.JPG|thumbnail|200px300px|left|Colonel William Travis. Painting by Henry McArdle.]]Neither Colonel William Travis nor confinement at the Alamo complex quelled Bowie’s drinking. Travis, commanding the regular army, was soon pitted against Bowie in a dispute as to which man would lead the forces in Bejar. The volunteer army, untrusting of Travis’ official authority, instinctively followed Bowie’s directives. Trying to placate all those concerned, Travis ordered an election to choose either Travis or Bowie to lead the troops. The result put Bowie in command of the volunteers and Travis maintained control of the formal troops. In a letter from Travis to Texas governor Henry Smith, he complained that “since his election” Bowie has been “roaring drunk all the time.” <ref>Travis to Henry Smith, Bejar, February 13, 1836, in ''Official Correspondence of the Texan Revolution, 1835-1836'', ed. William C. Binkley (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936), 1:419-420. Travis continues in the letter with descriptions of Bowie acting in a disorderly fashion, destroying property, and releasing incarcerated prisoners.</ref> Travis was a traditional army officer with formal training while Bowie was becoming increasingly unmanageable. Colonel Travis concluded that his larger-than-life counterpart could not be restrained. Travis resolved to let Bowie continue and was not responsible "for the drunken irregularities of any man.” <ref>Travis to Smith, 420.</ref>

Neither Colonel William Travis nor confinement at Acting irrationally from the time of the Alamo complex quelled Bowie’s drinking. Travis, commanding informal election until the regular armysiege began, was soon pitted against Bowie remained in a dispute as to which man would lead the forces in Bejar. The volunteer army, untrusting of Travis’ official authority, instinctively followed Bowie’s directives. Trying to placate all those concerned, Travis ordered an election to choose either Travis drunken or Bowie to lead the troopsconfused state. The result put Bowie in command of Rowdiness ensued when he began releasing Mexican prisoners and stopping “carts laden with the volunteers and Travis maintained control good of the formal troops. In a letter from Travis to Texas governor Henry Smith, he complained that “since his election” Bowie has been “roaring drunk all the time”private families”.<ref>Travis J.J. Baugh to Henry Smith, Bejar, February 13, 1836, in ''Official Correspondence of the Texan Revolution, 1835-1836'', ed. William C. Binkley (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936), 1:419421-420422. J.J. Travis continues in Baugh was Adjunct to the letter with descriptions Post of Bowie acting in a disorderly fashion, destroying property, and releasing incarcerated prisonersBejar.</ref>Travis To harass ordinary citizens was a traditional army officer with formal training while uncharacteristic of Bowie continued his irregular behaviors. Colonel Travis came to the conclusion These actions strongly suggest that his larger-than-life counterpart Bowie was not to be restrained only drunk but was acting irrationally and thusout of character. Although he remained literate, resolved to let his decision making abilities were compromised and Bowie continue but shunned responsibility "for the drunken irregularities of any man”had been described as confused or disoriented, which are symptoms that present in end-stage yellow fever.<ref>Travis to SmithCDC, 420''Yellow Fever.''</ref> Conversely, Bowie remained physically active and there are no records of him showing overt signs of physical illness at this time. By most accounts, Bowie arrived inside the Alamo compound without illness. Signs and symptoms; however, may not present until the disease is well advanced.

Acting irrationally from ==== Conditions In and Around the time Alamo ====[[File:battlealamo.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Battle of the informal election until Alamo as depicted in the siege beganSaturday Evening Post, Bowie remained 1836.]]Doctor Amos Pollard, who was present at the hospital in a drunken or confused state. Rowdiness ensued when Bejar, wrote to Governor Smith that he began releasing Mexican prisoners was “nearly destitute of medicine” and stopping “carts laden with continued to say he could be “of very little use to the good of private families”sick” were an attack to occur.<ref>J.J. Baugh Amos Pollard to Henry Smith, Bejar, February 13, 1836, in ''Official Correspondence of the Texan Revolution , 1835-1836,'', ed. William C. Binkley (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936), 1:421-422. J.J. Baugh was Adjunct to the Post of Bejar423.</ref> To harass ordinary citizens was uncharacteristic Lack of medicine combined with the lack of Bowienutritious food and [[How did Public Sanitation Develop?|poor sanitary conditions]] created an ideal environment for disease to thrive. These actions strongly suggest that Bowie was not only drunk A water-well in the center of the Alamo courtyard did provide fresh water but was acting irrationally and out of characteralso a breeding ground for mosquitoes. Although he remained literate, his decision making abilities were compromised and It is possible that Bowie had been described as confused or disoriented, which are symptoms that present in end-stage contracted yellow fever.<ref>CDC, ''Yellow Fever.''</ref>Conversely, Bowie remained physically active and there are no records of him showing overt signs of physical illness at this for a second time. By most accounts, Bowie arrived inside the Alamo compound without illness. Signs and symptoms; however, may if he did not present until fully recover from his first bout with the disease is well advanced.

== Accounts of Death ==[[File:bowieinbed.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Depiction of Jim Bowie fighting at the Alamo from his death bed. Painting by Charles A. Stephens, 1898.]]Andrea Castanon de Villanueva, more commonly known as Madam Candelaria, gave several different accounts as a witness to the siege at the Alamo. They all conflict as to the manner in which Bowie was killed, but concur as to the symptoms of his illness. Descriptions of Bowie's condition by other witnesses concur with Candelaria's account of him having shortness of breath, a continued cough, rapid pulse and fever, and the loss of "considerable flesh."<ref>Maurice Elfer, ''Madam Candelaria: Unsung Heroine of the Alamo'' (Houston: Rein, 1933),9.</ref> It must be noted; however, that the credibility of Candelaria must be closely scrutinized as she had no medical or nursing background and often contradicted herself in interviews. In an 1890 interview she was convinced he was "very ill of typhoid fever," while in an interview from 1899, she stated that Bowie was "afflicted with consumption."<ref>Bill Groneman, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1556228465/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1556228465&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0cdh-20&linkId=f25e7db795530fa1ef53bfc5b9faefc1 Eyewitness to the Alamo],'' (Plano: Taylor Trade Publishing, 1996), 107. Generally, there are no respiratory symptoms associated with typhoid fever.</ref> <ref>Groneman, 122. Pulmonary consumption was a term used in the 19th century for what is currently known as tuberculosis.</ref>Henderson Yoakum, a prominent lawyer, historian, and congressional representative from Texas, made a strong argument refuting Candelaria’s claim to having been Bowie’s nurse. In a letter dated January 8, 1870, to an unknown recipient, Yoakum argues that Juana Alsbury nursed Bowie at the Alamo and that Madam Candelaria was not even present at the time of the siege.<ref>Henderson Yoakum, “The McArdle Notebooks”, (Austin, Texas State Library), 29. Yoakum deduces that Mrs. Alsbury would have been the choice to nurse Bowie as she was the niece of former governor Veramendi and Bowie’s sister-in-law. The note claims that Alsbury was not aware of another woman nursing Bowie.<ad/ref>

Conflicting evidence is not new to the story ==== Accounts of the Alamo Death ====Andrea Castanon de Villanueva, more commonly known as myths and legends have been abundant since March 6, 1836Madam Candelaria, gave several different accounts as a witness to the day Santa Anna's troops toppled siege at the Alamo and slaughtered its defenders. One that was once believed They all conflict as to be fact, the manner in which has since been refuted by historians, is that Bowie fell from a parapet resulting in an injury that caused his physical decline. Medically this was possible if killed but concur as to the symptoms of his injury resulted in a pulmonary embolismillness. Emboli are often the result Descriptions of a blood clot traveling from the leg to the lungs; however, they can also develop from a fatty deposit dislodging from a broken bone. If Bowie had in fact fallen from such a height, a fracture 's condition by other witnesses concur with Candelaria's account of one of his ribs, or any bone, was highly probable. Untreated emboli are fatal and the symptoms, which include him having shortness of breath, chest paina continued cough, rapid pulse and a bloody coughfever, present themselves with sudden onsetand the loss of "considerable flesh."<ref>CarterMaurice Elfer, Interview''Madam Candelaria: Unsung Heroine of the Alamo'' (Houston: Rein, 1933),9.</ref> All of these elements fit It must be noted; however, that the description credibility of Bowie’s illness yet there has not been documentation found to substantiate him having fallenCandelaria must be closely scrutinized as she had no medical or nursing background and often contradicted herself in interviews. The only documented and undisputed testimony is In an 1890 interview she was convinced he was "very ill of typhoid fever," while in an interview from 1899, she stated that Bowie was bed"afflicted with consumption."<ref>Bill Groneman, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1556228465/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1556228465&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-ridden at 20&linkId=f25e7db795530fa1ef53bfc5b9faefc1 Eyewitness to the time Alamo],'' (Plano: Taylor Trade Publishing, 1996), 107.</ref> [[File:bowieinbed.jpg|thumbnail|200px|left|Depiction of the assault on Jim Bowie fighting at the Alamofrom his death bed. Painting by Charles A. Stephens, 1898.]]

All of Bowie's so-called nurses agreed that he Generally, there are no respiratory symptoms associated with typhoid fever.</ref> <ref>Groneman, 122. Pulmonary consumption was bedridden at the time of the siege, yet a soldier with Santa Anna's army denied seeing Bowie or anyone else term used in bed when the Mexican army stormed the compound19th century for what is currently known as tuberculosis. In his diary</ref> Henderson Yoakum, ''With Santa Anna in Texasa prominent lawyer,''Jose Enrique de la Pena vividly describes the scene on the morning of March 6historian, 1836 as one of blood confusion and unfathomable carnagecongressional representative from Texas made a strong argument refuting Candelaria’s claim to having been Bowie’s nurse. According In a letter dated January 8, 1870, to de la Penaan unknown recipient, Travis did Yoakum argues that Juana Alsbury nursed Bowie at the Alamo and that Madam Candelaria was not withdraw when even present at the Mexican troops scaled the walls time of the fortress, rather he died fightingsiege. He described the others as "terrified defenders" who " withdrew" and " bolted and reinforced the doors."<ref>Jose Enrique de la PenaHenderson Yoakum, ''With Santa Anna in Mexico“The McArdle Notebooks,'' Carmen Perry” (Austin, ed. and trans. (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 1975State Library), 5029. Yoakum deduces that Mrs. Alsbury would have been the choice to nurse Bowie as she was the niece of former governor Veramendi and Bowie’s sister-in-51law. The note claims that Alsbury was not aware of another woman nursing Bowie.</ref>

Conflicting evidence is not new to the story of the Alamo as myths and legends have been abundant since March 6, 1836, the day Santa Anna's troops toppled the Alamo and slaughtered its defenders. One that was once believed to be fact, which has since been refuted by historians, is that Bowie fell from a parapet resulting in an injury that caused his physical decline. Medically this was possible if his injury resulted in a pulmonary embolism. Emboli are often the result of a blood clot traveling from the leg to the lungs; however, they can also develop from a fatty deposit dislodging from a broken bone. If Bowie had fallen from such a height, a fracture of one of his ribs, or any bone, was highly probable. Untreated emboli are fatal and the symptoms, which include shortness of breath, chest pain, and a bloody cough, present themselves with sudden onset.<ref>Carter, Interview.</ref> All of these elements fit the description of Bowie’s illness, yet there has not been documentation found to substantiate him having fallen. The only documented and undisputed testimony is that Bowie was bed-ridden at the time of the assault on the Alamo. All of Bowie's so-called nurses agreed that he was bedridden at the time of the siege, yet a soldier with Santa Anna's army denied seeing Bowie or anyone else in bed when the Mexican army stormed the compound. In his diary, ''With Santa Anna in Texas,'' Jose Enrique de la Pena vividly describes the scene on the morning of March 6, 1836, as one of blood confusion and unfathomable carnage. According to de la Pena, Travis did not withdraw when the Mexican troops scaled the walls of the fortress; rather he died fighting. He described the others as "terrified defenders" who " withdrew" and "bolted and reinforced the doors."<ref>Jose Enrique de la Pena, ''With Santa Anna in Mexico,'' Carmen Perry, ed. and trans. (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 1975), 50-51.</ref> ==== The Most Probable Cause ====[[File:Bourbon-bottle_from_Gettysburg.jpeg|left|thumbnail|200px|19th century bourbon bottle.]]Jim Bowie, due to his excessive drinking and fearless bold actions, essentially harmed himself to the point that death was imminent regardless of the events that transpired that March morning in San Antonio. Alcohol abuse causes many detrimental effects on the human body, not least of which is cardiomyopathy.<ref>An enlargement of the heart causing it to no longer function properly.</ref> Another serious complication that has been overlooked by historians, is that of alcoholic pneumonia. This is a condition wherein an individual drinks to the point of unconsciousness and regurgitates the contents of the stomach into the lungs. Once the foreign matter is introduced, the sacs in the lungs inflame due to the excessive amount of white blood cells present trying to rid the body of the invasive substance. Resulting from this physiological phenomenon is the presence of fluid in the lungs known as pneumonia. Untreated, pneumonia can be fatal and produce such symptoms as a bloody cough, debilitating weakness, fever, chills, and shortness of breath.<ref>Carter, Interview.</ref> Given Bowie’s alcoholic tendencies and documented history as a binge drinker, this diagnosis is highly plausible if not probable.

==== Conclusion ====If one wishes to remember Bowie as a tragic hero falling from a parapet and contracting tuberculosis, there is a very slight chance that this occurred. In describing consumption in 1799, Dr. Thomas Beddoes stated, “We have seen how often external injury produces the disease”.<ref>Thomas Beddoes, ''Essay on the causes, early signs, and prevention of pulmonary consumption…'' (Bristol, 1799), 62.</ref>Advancements in science, however, have given us the informative educational tools to further Dr. Beddoes' research and question whether he was describing pulmonary consumption or a pulmonary embolism.

Death was inevitable for Bowie, whether at the hands of the Mexican army or his own. The abuses he inflicted on his body produce a shortened life-span, even in today’s technologically advance society. Frontier medicine of the 19th century was rudimentary and often times unattainable. Had Bowie received care in March of 1836 he would not have recovered to the extent possible due to his alcohol consumption. By participating in the illegal slave-trade of post-1808 North America, he indirectly enabled disease -ridden insects access to the continent. Slavery was not practiced in Mexico, yet slaves were present at the Alamo compound because of men like Bowie. Stagnant water was on hand due to the well inside the fortress. The preponderance of evidence suggests yellow fever as being the nature of Jim Bowie’s illness but alcoholic pneumonia needs further investigation as Bowie was a prime candidate for such an affliction. Other possibilities exist but due to Santa Anna’s choice to cremate the dead bodies found on the morning of March 6, 1836, no definitive conclusion can be drawn. Death took Jim Bowie in the same manner in which he approached life; fearlessly and without doubt.

Slavery was not practiced in Mexico, yet slaves were present at the Alamo compound because of men like Bowie. Stagnant water was on hand due to the well inside the fortress. The preponderance of evidence suggests yellow fever as being the nature of Jim Bowie’s illness but alcoholic pneumonia needs further investigation as Bowie was a prime candidate for such an affliction. Other possibilities exist but due to Santa Anna’s choice to cremate the dead bodies found on the morning of March 6, 1836, no definitive conclusion can be drawn. Death took Jim Bowie in the same manner in which he approached life; fearlessly and without doubt. <div class="portal" style="width:85%;">====Related DailyHistory.org Articles====*[[The Best Historians and Books According to James McPherson]]*[[What Was the Significance of the Southwest in the Outcome of the Civil War]]*[[What are the "Six Flags" that have Flown over Texas?]]*[[Why Was Vicksburg “The Gibraltar of the Confederacy?”]]*[[Were Members of the Underground Railroad Criminals?]]</div> ====References====