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{{Mediawiki:kindleoasis}}__NOTOC__[[File:1200px-Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg|thumbnail|300pxleft|250px|Alexander the Great]]In the public's mind, few well known conquerors in history match the exploits of Alexander the Great. In just a few years, from 334-330 BC, Alexander would go on to conquer the largest empire the world had known and establish his own empire that eventually stretched from Greece to India. Furthermore, Alexander began a process where Greek culture began to intermix with ancient Near Eastern, Egyptian, Central Asian, and Indian cultures that influenced much of the Old World for many centuries. The exchange of ideas and trade brought about an era of unprecedented prosperity and knowledge that advanced the ancient world's sciences and led to many discoveries that would not be replicated until the Renaissance in the 15 or 16th century AD. What is remarkable is he achieved all of this by the age of 32 at the time of his death in Babylon. However, the root of all the social change that would eventually influence Europe, the Near East, Egypt, and much of Asia rested in his ability to conquer a lot of territory and doing it quickly. The question is how did he do this?__NOTOC__

Alexander took power after the death The exchange of his father, Philip II ideas and trade brought about an era of Macedon, who had already planned to invade unprecedented prosperity and knowledge that advanced the Persian, Achaemenid Empire.<ref>For more on Alexanderancient world's father and his plans of conquests, see: Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly, and Daniel Ogden, edssciences. 2010. Philip II and Alexander It led to many discoveries that would not be replicated until the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> His first battles were Renaissance in Greece and the Balkans, where 15 or 16th century AD. What is remarkable is he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts. Shortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30,000-50,000 troops, Alexander quickly won his first major battle at Granicus.<ref>For more on achieved all of this battle, see: Matthews, Rupert. 2008. Alexander by the Great age of 32 at the Battle time of Granicus. Stroud: Spellmounthis death in Babylon.</ref> This victory allowed him to take the western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges and taking the city of SardisHowever, one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, he proceeded toward Syria where he encountered the Persian King Darius III in 333 at the battle root of Issus.<ref> For more on all the battle of Issussocial change that would eventually influence Europe, see: Delbrück, Hans. 1975. History of the Art of War. LincolnNear East, Neb: University of Nebraska Press/ Bison BookEgypt, pg. 191. </ref> This is the first major battle he had with the Persian king and once again Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Persian army through the use much of Asia rested in his cavalryability to conquer many territories and do it quickly. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's center lineThe question is, where how did he do this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1).?

==What region did Alexander conquer first?==[[File:Alexandermosaic.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Figure 1. A mosaic showing Alexander attacking Darius III and his center line centerline at the battle of Issus.]]

==The LevantAlexander took power after the death of his father, Philip II of Macedon, who had already planned to invade the Persian, Achaemenid Empire.<ref>For more on Alexander's father and his plans of conquests, see: Carney, SyriaElizabeth Donnelly, and EgyptDaniel Ogden, eds. 2010. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199738157/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0199738157&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=40e1c4808c9befad6d185d849b70849b Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives]. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> His first battles were Greece and the Balkans, where he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts.

After the battle of IssusShortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30, Alexander took the Levant and the coastal Mediterranean cities000-50, which were important trading cities and had allowed the Achaemenids to derive much of their wealth and establish their navy, and proceeded into Egypt. In Syria and the Levant000 troops, Alexander quickly won his only first major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza in 332 BCbattle at Granicus.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Levant and Syriathis battle, see: FreemanMatthews, PhilipRupert. 2008. <i>[https://www. 2011amazon. com/gp/product/1862274487/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1862274487&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=5cd69acbd10c5367b89300d97a9862e7 Alexander the Greatat the Battle of Granicus]</i>. New YorkStroud: Simon & Schuster, pg. 26Spellmount. </ref> In Egypt, he was quickly accepted by This victory allowed him to take the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before Alexander western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges andtaking Sardis, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadership. Here, he became considered the son one of Amun, the chief of the Egyptian pantheonmost important cities in Asia Minor, further exalting him in the eyes of his new subjectshe proceeded toward Syria. Alexander also began He encountered the process of founding cities, the most famous of which was Alexandria. ItPersian King Darius III in 333 at Issus's position along the Mediterranean reflects a key change, where Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated in culture and trade in the centuries to comebattle.<ref> For more on Alexander's time in Egyptthe battle of Issus, see: BowmanDelbrück, Alan KHans. 19961975. Egypt after the Pharaohs<i>[https: 332 BC//www.amazon.com/gp/product/0803265867/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0803265867&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-AD 642 ; from Alexander to 20&linkId=f94cfc51938674926b5abff31bc432d5 History of the Arab ConquestArt of War]</i>. 2. paperback printing. BerkeleyLincoln, Calif.Neb: Univ. University of California Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 22191. </ref> That was Alexander's intention from This is the outset, showing that first major battle he likely had long-termwith the Persian king, and once again, Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking about by outflanking the nature and future of Persian army through his conquered lands long after his own timecavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's centerline, where this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman-era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1).

==Battle How did Alexander conquer the Levant, Syria, and Egypt?==After the battle of Gaugamela Issus, Alexander took the Levant and the coastal Mediterranean cities, which were important trading cities and Fall allowed the Achaemenids to derive much of their wealth, establish their navy, and proceed into Egypt. In Syria and the Levant, his only major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza in 332 BC.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in the AchaemenidsLevant and Syria, see: Freeman, Philip. 2011. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1416592814/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1416592814&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f5c583c6ae9445145f4140977f336b3f Alexander the Great]</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster, pg. 26. </ref> In Egypt, he was quickly accepted by the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before Alexander and, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadership.

The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander at the battle of Gaugamela near modern day Erbil. ThereHere, once again Alexanderhe became considered Amun's tactics proved decisive where his forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' centerson, causing the king to likely flee chief of the battle. With this battle secureEgyptian pantheon, all of Mesopotamia fell to Alexander and the great city of Babylon was entered by Alexander without any need for combat. It is at Babylon that Alexander perhaps decided he would make the city further exalting him in his new capital of his now vast empire, as it would unit the Greek and Near Eastern worlds more closelysubjects' eyes. Alexander then went on to take Susa, also began the old capital process of the Persiansfounding cities, and then the ceremonial capital most famous of Persepolis, which was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander's troopsAlexandria. Only one more major battle was fought against Its position along the Persians at Mediterranean reflects a key change, where Egypt and the battle of eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated into culture and trade in the Persian Gates, a strategic crossingcenturies to come.<ref>For more on the Battles of Gaugamela and Alexander's later battles against the Persians, see: Wilckentime in Egypt, UlrichBowman, and Eugene NAlan K. Borza1996. 1967. Alexander the Great. Norton Library. New York[https: Norton, pg//www. 60amazon. <com/gp/product/0520205316/ref> After this, Darius III was killed by one of his own generals and Achaemenid factions continued to lead a guerilla style war against Alexander, although they squabbled between themselves over =as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520205316&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b3b436dd2cc5146e4b70f06b8ab1d48b Egypt after the remains of their empire. This led Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642] ; from Alexander to easily reach Central Asia with only minor resistance, where he founded many cities along the way that gained importance during the rise of the Silk RoadArab Conquest. This included the city of Kandhar in Afghanistan and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near the edge of Tibet2. His wars continued in Central Asia and India, where he initially encountered major resistancepaperback printing.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: RoyBerkeley, Kaushik. 2004Calif. India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to KargilUniv. Delhi : Bangalore: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longmanof California Press, pg. 2922</ref> That was Alexander's battles were intention from the first where European armies had encountered war elephantsoutset, which showing that he likely caused great fear in his army before eventually overcoming them in battle. Neverthelesshad long-term, strategic thinking about the difficulty of long campaigning nature and undoubtedly loss future of many men led to his men tiring of battle and eventually forcing Alexander to pull conquered lands long after his forces back, eventually reaching once again Babylon. By the own time Alexander finished campaigning, he had created the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2).

==What was the Battle of Gaugamela? ==[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|left|thumbnail|250px|Figure 2. The extent of Alexander's empire after his wars with the Persians, in Central Asia, and India.]]The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander at Gaugamela's battle near modern-day Erbil. Once again, Alexander's tactics proved decisive where his forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' center, causing the king to flee the battle likely. With this battle secure, all of Mesopotamia fell to Alexander, and Alexander entered Babylon's great city without any need for combat. At Babylon, Alexander perhaps decided he would make the city the new capital of his now vast empire, as it would unite the Greek and Near Eastern worlds more closely. Alexander then went on to take Susa, the old capital of the Persians, and then the ceremonial capital of Persepolis, which was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander's troops.

Clearly Only one more major battle was fought against the Persians at the Persian Gates battle, a strategic crossing.<ref>For More on the Battles of Gaugamela and Alexander's later battles against the Persians, see: Wilcken, Ulrich, and Eugene N. Borza. 1967. Alexander the Great. Norton Library. New York: Norton, pg. 60. </ref> After this, Darius III was killed by one of his generals, and Achaemenid factions continued to lead a guerilla-style war against Alexander. However, they squabbled between themselves over the remains of their empire.  ==What was the Fall of the Achaemenids?== This division allowed Alexander to reach Central Asia with only minor resistance easily. He founded many cities along the way that gained importance during the rise of the Silk Road. This included the city of Kandahar in Afghanistan and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near the edge of Tibet. His wars continued in Central Asia and India, where he initially encountered major resistance.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: Roy, Kaushik. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/8178241099/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=8178241099&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=912065039072f879b4b3dfdca7da078a India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil]</i>. Delhi : Bangalore: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longman, pg. 29</ref>  Alexander's battles were the first where European armies had encountered war elephants, which likely caused great fear in his army before eventually overcoming them in battle. Nevertheless, the difficulty of long campaigning and undoubtedly losing many men led to his men tiring of conflict and eventually forcing Alexander to pull his forces back, finally reaching once again Babylon. By the time Alexander finished campaigning, he had created the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2). ==Why Was Alexander the Great Successful?==Alexander's success lies lay in his military genius in , knowing how to use his cavalry and troops precisely at key moments in battle. Several times it It seemed he was close to defeat several times but was able to could use the situation to his advantage by luring his enemies into a deeper trap. Furthermore, his troops were well trained in holding their positions and not panicking in battle.<ref> For more on the battle tactics of Alexander, see: Bose, Partha Sarathi. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01FJ16XNM/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B01FJ16XNM&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=641707a6856af1049e12d1340ff7334f Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy: Lessons from the Great Empire Builder]</i>. London: Profile.</ref> However, a lot of the success had little to do with Alexander but the nature of the Achaemenid Empire's nature.  The Achaemenids were perhaps the most successful empire up to that point. They had not only succeed succeeded in uniting a vast territory but also truly and genuinely integrating it into a cohesive empire realm that traded extensively and had well -maintained roads. The Achaemenid state was prosperous , and people had by then began to move and live in areas far from their homelands. The world, in essence, had become smaller thanks to many of their tolerant policies.  ==What was Alexander's legacy?==While it is true that Egypt and some other regions had revolted against them, many had actually benefited from the Achaemenids. It Therefore, it is no wonder, therefore, that Alexander marries Persian royalty and eventually takes on the regalia of the Achaemenid kings. This is also why he had planned for Babylon to be his new capital, as it . It was one of the chief cities and capitals of the Achaemenid Empire despite being in Mesopotamia. Commerce had now become the glue that bound many regions , and Alexander understood this. This probably led to his men resenting Alexander's penchant for the Achaemenids, as the Greeks still held beliefs that the Persians were not on the same level as them.  While Alexander died perhaps before he could realize realizing his dream of a super empire, the east's benefits of the east became more apparent to his generals and men, where many . Many of them stayed after the wars. New Greek populations began to migrate to the Near East , and the process of mixing Hellenic and eastern cultures had begun, something that also brought started. The mixture of Greece and the Nearly mixed knowledge and created an integrated knowledge understanding that facilitated the rise of astronomy, physics, mathematics, and other scientific fields. Alexander's legacy lasted long after his death and his . His military success paved the way for the great tremendous Classical achievements that eventually became one of the foundations of the Renaissance and our modern Western world. <div class="portal" style="width:85%;">====Related DailyHistory.org Articles====*[[What was Plato's academy and why did it influence Western thought?]]*[[Alexander the Great Top Ten Booklist]]*[[What Factors Led to the Creation of the First Cities?]]*[[How Did Early Judicial Systems Evolve?]]</div>

[[Category:Near East History]][[Category:Ancient Egyptian Greek History]][[Category: Hellenistic Period]][[Category:Alexander the Great]]Updated March 22, 2021