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==Background==
Roman had annexed Asia Minor and the truncated Seleucid Empire in the 1st century AD. This was to have far-reaching strategic repercussions for the Romans. For the first time , they came into contact with the Parthian Empire. The Parthians were an Iranian people who carved out an extensive Empire out of the former Seleucid Empire. Their empire stretched from modern Iraq to Pakistan. Rome in the 1st century AD had greatly expanded its Empire and many of its leaders believed that the Republic was invincible<ref>Sampson, Gareth, The Defeat of Rome: Crassus, Carrhae, and the Invasion of the East (Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military, 2008), p. 17</ref>. Rome by the 50s BCE was ruled by a ‘Triumvirate’ of Caesar, Pompey , and Crassus. This, known as the ‘First Triumvirate’ was an informal political alliance between the three most important men in Rome. Caesar who had been the leader of the popular party was in Gaul conquering that vast area. Pompey had won many victories in the East and was commonly referred to as Pompey the Great. Crassus power rested on his fabulous wealth and his ability as a political operator. In this period success in battle was a requisite for political power. Crassus was very aware that he did not have any great military victories. He had played a leading role in the suppression of the Revolt of Spartacus, but this was not considered glorious enough for him. He needed a victory for his and his son’s career. Parthia was largely an unknown entity, but the Romans had heard that it had lately been weakened, because of a succession crisis. This and his political ambition persuaded Crassus to invade the Empire with the belief that he could conquer it, as Caesar . He had done in Gaul himself appointed the governor of Syria and this would strengthen his position in Romemade preparations to invade Parthia. This was contrary to the Senate's policy which had not sought conflict with the Parthian monarchs.
[[File: Carrhae 2.jpg |200px|thumb|left|A Parthian horse archer]]
==The Battle==
Crassus landed in Asia Minor with a large army, some estimate it to be 50,000 strong. The Roman commander had little military experience, but his son was a seasoned and respected campaigner. The Romans knew little about the lands that they were going to invade<ref> Sicker, Martin"Carrhae," in The Pre-Islamic Middle East (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), pp. 149–51</ref>. The king of Armenia offered to allow the invading army to invade Parthia via his kingdom. This would have allowed the Roman legions to march down into modern Iraq and on to the capital of Parthia, Ctesiphon. Instead Crassus invaded by way of Turkey. This was an area largely of plains and it was ideal for cavalry. Several Roman commanders including Cassius tried to dissuade him from this course. However, Crassus was overconfident and believed that his army was invincible. The Romans outnumbered the Parthians and their allies by up to four to one. The Parthians were mainly cavalry and they had little infantry. They were led by a general of genius Surena, who came from Central Asia. Suren adopted guerrilla tactics at first and used his superior cavalry to harass and inflict casualties on the Romans<ref>Sicker, p.150</ref>. Surena decided to confront the advancing Crassus at the small town of Carrhae in modern Turkey. The Parthians used their cavalry archers to launch hit and runs attacks on the Romans who were in tight formation. Crassus hoped that the Parthians would run out of arrows, but Suren used Bactrian camels to re-supply his forces with arrows. Under the relentless showers of arrows, the Roman legionnaires could not move, and their supplies ran low<ref>Sampson, p. 117</ref>. According to Plutarch "Now if they had hopes that the enemy would exhaust their missiles and desist from battle or fight at close quarters, the Romans held out; but when they perceived that many camels laden with arrows were at hand, from which the Parthians who first encircled them took a fresh supply’</ref> Plutarch, Life of Crassus, xxi </ref>. The Roman commander repeatedly ordered that his army move forward and engage with the enemy. However, each time the legions advanced the Parthian cavalry retreated and firing arrows as they did. This caused many casualties among the Romans and their morale began to collapse <ref>Sicker, p. 149</ref>. It is claimed that many of the Parthian arrows could pierce armor and pinned Romans to ground. that their hands were riveted to their shields and their feet nailed through and through to the ground, so that they were helpless either for flight or for self-defence. The army of Crassus was on the verge of mutiny. They forced Crassus to negotiate with Suren. This may have allowed the Romans to withdraw safely from Parthian territory in return for the evacuation of several Roman garrisons from east of the Euphrates (in modern Iraq). However, during the meeting between the Roman and the Parthian commanders one of the soldiers of Suren seized the reins of Crassus horse and this lead to a skirmish<ref>Plutarch, xxiii</ref>. In this Crassus and his son were killed, leaving the Romans leaderless and they were effectively cut off in enemy territory<ref>Sampson, p. 119</ref>. Surena then ordered his heavy cavalry the cataphracts (the forerunners of the medieval knight) to charge into the Roman lines. They were ineffective, but they caused panic among the legionnaires. The Romans began a disorganized retreat and they came under constant attack from the forces of Suren. Many Romans made it back safely to Syria, but it is estimated that some 20,000 legionnaires were killed and another 10,000 captured. Those captured were paraded through the Parthian Capital and later made to work as slaves in Central Asia<ref>Sicker, p. 151</ref>.
