https://dailyhistory.org/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=TheMayor&feedformat=atomDailyHistory.org - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T11:05:55ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.30.0https://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Why_did_the_United_States_Gain_the_Upper_Hand_Against_the_Soviet_Union_at_the_End_of_the_Cold_War&diff=2471Why did the United States Gain the Upper Hand Against the Soviet Union at the End of the Cold War2016-06-10T03:53:56Z<p>TheMayor: /* Contrasting Leadership */</p>
<hr />
<div>As previously featured on our site, the United States faced a series of real and growing crises during the 1970s. Despite these setbacks and the impression that the Soviet Union was gaining strength, the next decade would be a dramatic reversal. A combination of factors, including the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, plummeting oil prices, and public unrest would help lead to the fall of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Loss of faith in government followed American involvement in the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal that resulted in President Richard Nixon's resignation. For the first time, the United States was headed by an unelected President, Gerald Ford, who lost to Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter in 1976. The American economy struggled, with the twin demons of inflation and slow economic growth dogging the average taxpayer. In addition, the first major wave of outsourcing began to eliminate formerly plentiful and well-paying construction and manufacturing jobs. Carter's presidency saw its share of crises, including the overthrow of the American-allied Shah of Iran in 1979, sparking a second oil crisis. The Iranian fundamentalists took Americans hostage for over a year and Carter appeared powerless to stop it. In addition, the Soviet Union's budget was brimming due to high oil prices and it became more aggressive across the globe. In 1979 the Soviets invaded neighboring Afghanistan to prop up a friendly Communist regime there. As the United States fell back into recession in 1980 Carter lost the confidence of the American people and was replaced by former California Governor Ronald Reagan by a 51-41% margin. Only sharp changes could get the United States out of its 'malaise' period.<br />
<br />
==End of the Oil Crisis==<br />
<br />
On the first day Ronald Reagan entered the Oval Office, major change occurred. Iran released all of the American hostages, who departed Iranian airspace around the time he began his inaugural address. Iran faced tremendous pressure, not just from the hostage crisis, but also the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988). The massive spike in oil prices was met with varying responses. American oil companies had ramped up exploration and extraction efforts and soon brought new oil on the market. The war in the Middle East also forced major oil producers to begin a price race to the bottom. However, the largest factor appeared to be a policy decision started during President Carter's administration.<br />
<br />
President Carter appointed Paul Volcker as the Chairman of the Federal Reserve in 1979. Volcker implemented a dramatic effort to reduce the inflation that had been affecting the United States for the better part of a decade. The Fed drastically increased interest rates, which had the dual effect of causing a recession and sharply reducing inflation. The effort may have cost Carter the Presidency, but was continued under President Reagan. Interest rates fell from over 10% to under 4%, strengthening the U.S. dollar and helping slash the cost of oil. The dramatic fall of petroleum prices proved to be a boon for the U.S. economy while severely hurting that of the Soviet Union, which was dependent on profits from exports.<br />
<br />
The United States also saw dramatic rise in GDP growth. The 1970s had multiple years where nominal growth was similar to the rise in inflation. A series of tax cuts and reductions in regulation coupled with low oil prices led to a sharp increase. In 1980 real GDP declined by 0.3%. By 1984, real GDP grew by a blistering 7.3%. Unemployment also fell sharply. As the U.S. economy roared, the Soviet command economy suffered mightily. The rigid form of state control led to a lack of consumer goods and public discontent.<br />
<br />
==Contrasting Leadership==<br />
<br />
In the United States, President Reagan polled as one of the more popular presidents of the 20th Century. He was already familiar to millions of Americans through his days as an actor and the governor of the nation's most populous state. Despite being the oldest elected President, Reagan remained in office for eight years, projecting an air of stability. Reagan's iconic speech at the Berlin Wall helped to galvanize opposition to Soviet power.<br />
<br />
[[File:Reagan_%26_Gorbachev_Arrive_(8002548794).jpg|200px|thumb|left|Reagan and Gorbachev in Reykjavik Iceland, 1986]]<br />
<br />
Things could not be more difficult for the Soviets. Longtime dictator Leonid Brezhnev had been in power since 1964 and had been a frequent foil for President Carter. By the time Reagan took office Brezhnev was 74 and in poor health. When Brezhnev died in 1982 we was promptly replaced by 68 year old Yuri Andropov, a former director of the KGB, who also died in February 1984. Andropov was replaced by 72 year old Konstantin Chernenko, who died in March 1985. Facing three successive deaths as the Soviet economy stalled, the Politburo chose 54 year old Mikhail Gorbachev. He was the first, and only leader of the Soviet Union that reached adulthood after the Second World War. Gorbachev's leadership was seen as more conciliatory and fostered new relations with the West. <ref>Gaddis, John Lewis. ''We now know: rethinking Cold War history.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. Pages 45-49.</ref><br />
<br />
==Foreign Policy==<br />
<br />
For the Soviet Union there was one overhanging albatross: the war in Afghanistan. Brezhnev had invaded the country in 1979 and now the U.S.S.R. was mired in a tremendous struggle against varying tribes and foreign mujahadeen. The U.S. offered substantial military and financial assistance to the rebels, including the introduction of Stinger missiles, which destroyed Soviet dominance of the skies. The Soviets never exercised control over the entire country, instead having authority over the capital of Kabul and a corridor within the country. The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan is commonly referred to as its country's Vietnam War. After suffering about 15,000 dead, the Soviets withdrew from the country in 1989.<br />
<br />
Also facing the Soviets was a lack of international trust. Relations with the West and China remained strained. The Soviets' accidental shootdown of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in September 1983 that killed 269 civilians further widened distrust of Russia. Gorbachev attempted to craft new agreements with the West. In 1985 Gorbachev unilaterally removed Soviet SS-20 intermediate range nuclear missiles from Europe. The next year he announced the start of the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan. Reagan and Gorbachev met in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1986 to discuss possible nuclear weapon disarmament. Both agreed on wide-ranging proposals in principle, including the elimination of all nuclear weapons. These negotiations were not final but led directly to the adoption of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987.<br />
<br />
Part of Reagan's policy included a large military buildup. Hundreds of old navy vessels were rehabbed and pressed into service. The size and quality of the United States army and air force also improved. The proposed development of an anti-ballistic missile defense system, the Strategic Defense Initiative, frightened the Soviets. Although not directly related, the U.S. took a lead in space development with the first flight of the space shuttle in 1981, sparking a Soviet shuttle effort, the Buran. The Soviets spent much of the 1980s attempting to catch up. Soviet military expenditure rose at a time of declining economic growth, leading to a much larger share of the overall GDP going to the military rather than consumer goods. <br />
<br />
Perhaps the largest change in Soviet foreign policy was that of weakening total control over Eastern Europe. The Soviet bloc faced a series of crushing interventions against any semblance of independence, including in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968. Gorbachev announced in 1988 that he would cease this policy, which further increased calls for self-determination. Many in the Eastern European states soured on the slow economic growth and poor conditions under Soviet domination. As Gorbachev opened up the Soviet bloc's press and economy Eastern Europe would begin fading farther out of his grasp.<br />
<br />
==Glasnost, Perestroika, and the Wider World==<br />
<br />
Gorbachev recognized much of the rot that threatened to undermine every aspect of Soviet society. He understood that the structure of the Soviet Union could not tolerate rapid, radical change and instead introduced a series of reforms meant to bring more liberty and growth to the U.S.S.R. Gorbachev introduced the glasnost policy, sometimes referred to as 'openness' in the West in 1986. These reforms did not completely open up Soviet society, but did reduce censorship and allow some criticism of the past. As Soviet citizens and intellectuals read a more accurate version of Soviet history, discontent would follow. Residents of the Soviet bloc would also read accurate government statistics and about the true standard of living in the West. Gorbachev also restructured the government of the Soviet Union, creating the position of President assume much of the power given to the General Secretary of the Communist Party. The most profound effects of this new policies would take place in Eastern Europe. The countries under Soviet domination now demanded more liberties.<br />
<br />
Much of the pushback against the Soviet system started with Poland. The trade union Solidarity, or Solidarność in Polish, was founded in 1980 under Lech Walesa. This occurred after a series of strikes at the Gdansk shipyard. About a third of the entire working population joined the organization, leading to a sharp crackdown. The Polish Communist regime instituted a state of martial law from 1981 until 1983. The government soon recognized that the organization would not be broken by sheer force, leading to its acceptance by the regime. Polish Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła was elected Pope in 1978. This and the rise of Solidarity helped engender nationalist and religious revivals in the country. The Polish Communists had no choice but to allow elections, which took place in June 1989. While the Communist Party prevented a truly free election, most Polish citizens voted for the opposition. Walesa was elected President in December 1990.<ref>Kaiser, Robert John. ''The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Pages 78-88</ref><br />
<br />
The spirit of resistance began to spread across the Eastern Bloc and into the Soviet Union itself. The Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were forcibly added to the U.S.S.R. in 1940 by Josef Stalin. By the mid to late 1980s increasing movements called for increased freedoms and outright independence. By 1991 all three states were independent, starting a precedent that would start breaking the Soviet republics away from Moscow. In Russia itself nationalist leader Boris Yeltsin, the mayor of Moscow, began to assert more authority. Russia within the Soviet Union gained increased authority as powers devolved as the Soviet Union declined. The United States actively supported independence movements across Eastern Europe.<br />
<br />
Gorbachev also intended to modernize the antiquated command economy of the Soviet Union. He instituted Perestroika, or Restructuring, in 1987. As Soviet standards of living declined Gorbachev believed that allowing limited direct capitalism could reverse this trend. Companies were no longer directly controlled by the state but instead by worker's councils. These companies were no longer bankrolled by Moscow, leading to the decline of unprofitable enterprises. Gorbachev's Law on Collectives in May 1988 allowed limited private property for the first time since the 1920s. The U.S.S.R. did the seemingly unthinkable and allowed foreign investment in the country. However, hallmarks of a socialist economy remained in place, including currency controls, price controls, and state control of the means of production. While these initiatives were certainly bold, they did not solve the Soviet Union's economic issues, and coupled with glasnost seemed to increase divisions that led to its fall.<ref>Gorbachev, Mikhail. "Perestroika: New thinking for our country and the world." (1987).</ref><br />
<br />
==Instability and the Ultimate Fall==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union faced a series of internal and external challenges that it was unable to meet. Gorbachev's reforms had improved some conditions while giving enough of an opening for anti-Communist ideas to spread. Nationalist forces, some suppressed since the First World War began to break out. Violence in the Caucasus began as ethnic Armenians demanded the Azerbaijani-controlled territory Nagorno-Karabakh be united with the Soviet Republic of Armenia. Soviet power appeared on the wane everywhere-- Soviet forces were pulling out of Afghanistan after a decade of unsuccessful war, protests roiled Eastern Europe and the Baltic republics, and the Soviet economy continued to lag.<ref>Lebow, Richard Ned, and Thomas Risse-Kappen, eds. ''International relations theory and the end of the Cold War.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:BerlinWall.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|A portion of the Berlin Wall being removed, 1990]] <br />
<br />
One by one nations of Eastern Europe began to remove themselves from the Soviet sphere of influence. Protests began across Poland, Hungary, and East Germany in the spring of 1989. After a declaration that East German citizens could visit West Germany unimpeded on November 9th the Berlin Wall was opened and travel between the two Germanies began. Germany would be reunited the next year. By the end of 1990 each of the former Soviet satellite states were against independent with democratically elected governments.<br />
<br />
[[File:SovietCoup.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|A scene from the attempted August 1991 coup in Moscow]]<br />
<br />
With the decline of the Soviet Union and fall of its imperial status in Eastern Europe, Communist Party hardliners determined that something had to be done. Led by Vice President Gennadi Yanayev the ringleaders launched a coup against Gorbachev while he was on vacation in August 1991. Massive public protests led by Yelstin helped to stall the effort. Gorbachev returned to Moscow and assumed control. However, his actual power was severely limited. The power of the Communist Party had essentially collapsed. Gorbachev resigned as Communist Party General Secretary later that month. As the Soviet Union appeared on the brink of collapse and with a multitude of the constituent republics either outright independent or with substantial autonomy, Gorbachev announced his resignation on December 25, 1991, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref>Wohlforth, William C. "Realism and the End of the Cold War." ''International Security'' 19, no. 3 (1994): 91-129.</ref><br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
The fall of the Soviet Union had a multitude of effects on the wider world, including the democratization of almost all of Eastern Europe. Russia faced a turbulent 1990s with Yelstin as President. The country partially modernized and entered into a market economy, but much of the economy was instead taken over by oligarchs and the Russian mafia. Gorbachev and Reagan's actions helped bring an end to almost fifty years of hostilities in Europe and beyond and close out the Cold War.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]] [[Category:Cold War]] [[Category:20th Century History]] [[Category:Diplomatic History]] [[Category:History of United States]]<br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:Reagan_%26_Gorbachev_Arrive_(8002548794).jpg&diff=2470File:Reagan & Gorbachev Arrive (8002548794).jpg2016-06-10T03:53:24Z<p>TheMayor: Description C37401-8A, President Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev at the Hofdi House in Reykjavik, Iceland during the Reyjavik Summit. 10/11/86.
Date 11 October 1986
Source http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/gorby.html
Au...</p>
<hr />
<div>Description C37401-8A, President Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev at the Hofdi House in Reykjavik, Iceland during the Reyjavik Summit. 10/11/86.<br />
<br />
Date 11 October 1986<br />
<br />
Source http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/gorby.html<br />
<br />
Author Fed Govt</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:SovietCoup.jpeg&diff=2468File:SovietCoup.jpeg2016-06-10T03:51:52Z<p>TheMayor: English: T-80UD tanks in the Red square during the 1991 soviet coup d'etat attempt. Location: Northern ramp of Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge (not exactly Red Square, some 200 meters south from its formal southern edge, with Nabatnaya tower in sight)
Aut...</p>
<hr />
<div>English: T-80UD tanks in the Red square during the 1991 soviet coup d'etat attempt. Location: Northern ramp of Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge (not exactly Red Square, some 200 meters south from its formal southern edge, with Nabatnaya tower in sight)<br />
<br />
Author: Almog</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Why_did_the_United_States_Gain_the_Upper_Hand_Against_the_Soviet_Union_at_the_End_of_the_Cold_War&diff=2467Why did the United States Gain the Upper Hand Against the Soviet Union at the End of the Cold War2016-06-10T03:51:33Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>As previously featured on our site, the United States faced a series of real and growing crises during the 1970s. Despite these setbacks and the impression that the Soviet Union was gaining strength, the next decade would be a dramatic reversal. A combination of factors, including the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, plummeting oil prices, and public unrest would help lead to the fall of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Loss of faith in government followed American involvement in the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal that resulted in President Richard Nixon's resignation. For the first time, the United States was headed by an unelected President, Gerald Ford, who lost to Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter in 1976. The American economy struggled, with the twin demons of inflation and slow economic growth dogging the average taxpayer. In addition, the first major wave of outsourcing began to eliminate formerly plentiful and well-paying construction and manufacturing jobs. Carter's presidency saw its share of crises, including the overthrow of the American-allied Shah of Iran in 1979, sparking a second oil crisis. The Iranian fundamentalists took Americans hostage for over a year and Carter appeared powerless to stop it. In addition, the Soviet Union's budget was brimming due to high oil prices and it became more aggressive across the globe. In 1979 the Soviets invaded neighboring Afghanistan to prop up a friendly Communist regime there. As the United States fell back into recession in 1980 Carter lost the confidence of the American people and was replaced by former California Governor Ronald Reagan by a 51-41% margin. Only sharp changes could get the United States out of its 'malaise' period.<br />
<br />
==End of the Oil Crisis==<br />
<br />
On the first day Ronald Reagan entered the Oval Office, major change occurred. Iran released all of the American hostages, who departed Iranian airspace around the time he began his inaugural address. Iran faced tremendous pressure, not just from the hostage crisis, but also the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988). The massive spike in oil prices was met with varying responses. American oil companies had ramped up exploration and extraction efforts and soon brought new oil on the market. The war in the Middle East also forced major oil producers to begin a price race to the bottom. However, the largest factor appeared to be a policy decision started during President Carter's administration.<br />
<br />
President Carter appointed Paul Volcker as the Chairman of the Federal Reserve in 1979. Volcker implemented a dramatic effort to reduce the inflation that had been affecting the United States for the better part of a decade. The Fed drastically increased interest rates, which had the dual effect of causing a recession and sharply reducing inflation. The effort may have cost Carter the Presidency, but was continued under President Reagan. Interest rates fell from over 10% to under 4%, strengthening the U.S. dollar and helping slash the cost of oil. The dramatic fall of petroleum prices proved to be a boon for the U.S. economy while severely hurting that of the Soviet Union, which was dependent on profits from exports.<br />
<br />
The United States also saw dramatic rise in GDP growth. The 1970s had multiple years where nominal growth was similar to the rise in inflation. A series of tax cuts and reductions in regulation coupled with low oil prices led to a sharp increase. In 1980 real GDP declined by 0.3%. By 1984, real GDP grew by a blistering 7.3%. Unemployment also fell sharply. As the U.S. economy roared, the Soviet command economy suffered mightily. The rigid form of state control led to a lack of consumer goods and public discontent.<br />
<br />
==Contrasting Leadership==<br />
<br />
In the United States, President Reagan polled as one of the more popular presidents of the 20th Century. He was already familiar to millions of Americans through his days as an actor and the governor of the nation's most populous state. Despite being the oldest elected President, Reagan remained in office for eight years, projecting an air of stability. Reagan's iconic speech at the Berlin Wall helped to galvanize opposition to Soviet power.<br />
<br />
[[File:Reagan_Gorbachev_Iceland.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Reagan and Gorbachev in Reykjavik Iceland, 1986]]<br />
<br />
Things could not be more difficult for the Soviets. Longtime dictator Leonid Brezhnev had been in power since 1964 and had been a frequent foil for President Carter. By the time Reagan took office Brezhnev was 74 and in poor health. When Brezhnev died in 1982 we was promptly replaced by 68 year old Yuri Andropov, a former director of the KGB, who also died in February 1984. Andropov was replaced by 72 year old Konstantin Chernenko, who died in March 1985. Facing three successive deaths as the Soviet economy stalled, the Politburo chose 54 year old Mikhail Gorbachev. He was the first, and only leader of the Soviet Union that reached adulthood after the Second World War. Gorbachev's leadership was seen as more conciliatory and fostered new relations with the West. <ref>Gaddis, John Lewis. ''We now know: rethinking Cold War history.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. Pages 45-49.</ref><br />
<br />
==Foreign Policy==<br />
<br />
For the Soviet Union there was one overhanging albatross: the war in Afghanistan. Brezhnev had invaded the country in 1979 and now the U.S.S.R. was mired in a tremendous struggle against varying tribes and foreign mujahadeen. The U.S. offered substantial military and financial assistance to the rebels, including the introduction of Stinger missiles, which destroyed Soviet dominance of the skies. The Soviets never exercised control over the entire country, instead having authority over the capital of Kabul and a corridor within the country. The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan is commonly referred to as its country's Vietnam War. After suffering about 15,000 dead, the Soviets withdrew from the country in 1989.<br />
<br />
Also facing the Soviets was a lack of international trust. Relations with the West and China remained strained. The Soviets' accidental shootdown of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in September 1983 that killed 269 civilians further widened distrust of Russia. Gorbachev attempted to craft new agreements with the West. In 1985 Gorbachev unilaterally removed Soviet SS-20 intermediate range nuclear missiles from Europe. The next year he announced the start of the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan. Reagan and Gorbachev met in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1986 to discuss possible nuclear weapon disarmament. Both agreed on wide-ranging proposals in principle, including the elimination of all nuclear weapons. These negotiations were not final but led directly to the adoption of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987.<br />
<br />
Part of Reagan's policy included a large military buildup. Hundreds of old navy vessels were rehabbed and pressed into service. The size and quality of the United States army and air force also improved. The proposed development of an anti-ballistic missile defense system, the Strategic Defense Initiative, frightened the Soviets. Although not directly related, the U.S. took a lead in space development with the first flight of the space shuttle in 1981, sparking a Soviet shuttle effort, the Buran. The Soviets spent much of the 1980s attempting to catch up. Soviet military expenditure rose at a time of declining economic growth, leading to a much larger share of the overall GDP going to the military rather than consumer goods. <br />
<br />
Perhaps the largest change in Soviet foreign policy was that of weakening total control over Eastern Europe. The Soviet bloc faced a series of crushing interventions against any semblance of independence, including in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968. Gorbachev announced in 1988 that he would cease this policy, which further increased calls for self-determination. Many in the Eastern European states soured on the slow economic growth and poor conditions under Soviet domination. As Gorbachev opened up the Soviet bloc's press and economy Eastern Europe would begin fading farther out of his grasp.<br />
<br />
==Glasnost, Perestroika, and the Wider World==<br />
<br />
Gorbachev recognized much of the rot that threatened to undermine every aspect of Soviet society. He understood that the structure of the Soviet Union could not tolerate rapid, radical change and instead introduced a series of reforms meant to bring more liberty and growth to the U.S.S.R. Gorbachev introduced the glasnost policy, sometimes referred to as 'openness' in the West in 1986. These reforms did not completely open up Soviet society, but did reduce censorship and allow some criticism of the past. As Soviet citizens and intellectuals read a more accurate version of Soviet history, discontent would follow. Residents of the Soviet bloc would also read accurate government statistics and about the true standard of living in the West. Gorbachev also restructured the government of the Soviet Union, creating the position of President assume much of the power given to the General Secretary of the Communist Party. The most profound effects of this new policies would take place in Eastern Europe. The countries under Soviet domination now demanded more liberties.<br />
<br />
Much of the pushback against the Soviet system started with Poland. The trade union Solidarity, or Solidarność in Polish, was founded in 1980 under Lech Walesa. This occurred after a series of strikes at the Gdansk shipyard. About a third of the entire working population joined the organization, leading to a sharp crackdown. The Polish Communist regime instituted a state of martial law from 1981 until 1983. The government soon recognized that the organization would not be broken by sheer force, leading to its acceptance by the regime. Polish Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła was elected Pope in 1978. This and the rise of Solidarity helped engender nationalist and religious revivals in the country. The Polish Communists had no choice but to allow elections, which took place in June 1989. While the Communist Party prevented a truly free election, most Polish citizens voted for the opposition. Walesa was elected President in December 1990.<ref>Kaiser, Robert John. ''The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Pages 78-88</ref><br />
<br />
The spirit of resistance began to spread across the Eastern Bloc and into the Soviet Union itself. The Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were forcibly added to the U.S.S.R. in 1940 by Josef Stalin. By the mid to late 1980s increasing movements called for increased freedoms and outright independence. By 1991 all three states were independent, starting a precedent that would start breaking the Soviet republics away from Moscow. In Russia itself nationalist leader Boris Yeltsin, the mayor of Moscow, began to assert more authority. Russia within the Soviet Union gained increased authority as powers devolved as the Soviet Union declined. The United States actively supported independence movements across Eastern Europe.<br />
<br />
Gorbachev also intended to modernize the antiquated command economy of the Soviet Union. He instituted Perestroika, or Restructuring, in 1987. As Soviet standards of living declined Gorbachev believed that allowing limited direct capitalism could reverse this trend. Companies were no longer directly controlled by the state but instead by worker's councils. These companies were no longer bankrolled by Moscow, leading to the decline of unprofitable enterprises. Gorbachev's Law on Collectives in May 1988 allowed limited private property for the first time since the 1920s. The U.S.S.R. did the seemingly unthinkable and allowed foreign investment in the country. However, hallmarks of a socialist economy remained in place, including currency controls, price controls, and state control of the means of production. While these initiatives were certainly bold, they did not solve the Soviet Union's economic issues, and coupled with glasnost seemed to increase divisions that led to its fall.<ref>Gorbachev, Mikhail. "Perestroika: New thinking for our country and the world." (1987).</ref><br />
<br />
==Instability and the Ultimate Fall==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union faced a series of internal and external challenges that it was unable to meet. Gorbachev's reforms had improved some conditions while giving enough of an opening for anti-Communist ideas to spread. Nationalist forces, some suppressed since the First World War began to break out. Violence in the Caucasus began as ethnic Armenians demanded the Azerbaijani-controlled territory Nagorno-Karabakh be united with the Soviet Republic of Armenia. Soviet power appeared on the wane everywhere-- Soviet forces were pulling out of Afghanistan after a decade of unsuccessful war, protests roiled Eastern Europe and the Baltic republics, and the Soviet economy continued to lag.<ref>Lebow, Richard Ned, and Thomas Risse-Kappen, eds. ''International relations theory and the end of the Cold War.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:BerlinWall.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|A portion of the Berlin Wall being removed, 1990]] <br />
<br />
One by one nations of Eastern Europe began to remove themselves from the Soviet sphere of influence. Protests began across Poland, Hungary, and East Germany in the spring of 1989. After a declaration that East German citizens could visit West Germany unimpeded on November 9th the Berlin Wall was opened and travel between the two Germanies began. Germany would be reunited the next year. By the end of 1990 each of the former Soviet satellite states were against independent with democratically elected governments.<br />
<br />
[[File:SovietCoup.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|A scene from the attempted August 1991 coup in Moscow]]<br />
<br />
With the decline of the Soviet Union and fall of its imperial status in Eastern Europe, Communist Party hardliners determined that something had to be done. Led by Vice President Gennadi Yanayev the ringleaders launched a coup against Gorbachev while he was on vacation in August 1991. Massive public protests led by Yelstin helped to stall the effort. Gorbachev returned to Moscow and assumed control. However, his actual power was severely limited. The power of the Communist Party had essentially collapsed. Gorbachev resigned as Communist Party General Secretary later that month. As the Soviet Union appeared on the brink of collapse and with a multitude of the constituent republics either outright independent or with substantial autonomy, Gorbachev announced his resignation on December 25, 1991, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref>Wohlforth, William C. "Realism and the End of the Cold War." ''International Security'' 19, no. 3 (1994): 91-129.</ref><br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
The fall of the Soviet Union had a multitude of effects on the wider world, including the democratization of almost all of Eastern Europe. Russia faced a turbulent 1990s with Yelstin as President. The country partially modernized and entered into a market economy, but much of the economy was instead taken over by oligarchs and the Russian mafia. Gorbachev and Reagan's actions helped bring an end to almost fifty years of hostilities in Europe and beyond and close out the Cold War.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]] [[Category:Cold War]] [[Category:20th Century History]] [[Category:Diplomatic History]] [[Category:History of United States]]<br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:BerlinWall.jpeg&diff=2466File:BerlinWall.jpeg2016-06-10T03:47:22Z<p>TheMayor: A crane removing a section of the Berlin Wall on December 21, 1989
East and West Germans converge at the newly created opening in the Berlin Wall after a crane removed a section of the structure beside the Brandenburg Gate.</p>
<hr />
<div>A crane removing a section of the Berlin Wall on December 21, 1989<br />
<br />
East and West Germans converge at the newly created opening in the Berlin Wall after a crane removed a section of the structure beside the Brandenburg Gate.</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Why_did_the_United_States_Gain_the_Upper_Hand_Against_the_Soviet_Union_at_the_End_of_the_Cold_War&diff=2465Why did the United States Gain the Upper Hand Against the Soviet Union at the End of the Cold War2016-06-10T03:42:16Z<p>TheMayor: /* Instability and the Ultimate Fall */</p>
<hr />
<div>As previously featured on our site, the United States faced a series of real and growing crises during the 1970s. Despite these setbacks and the impression that the Soviet Union was gaining strength, the next decade would be a dramatic reversal. A combination of factors, including the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, plummeting oil prices, and public unrest would help lead to the fall of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Loss of faith in government followed American involvement in the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal that resulted in President Richard Nixon's resignation. For the first time, the United States was headed by an unelected President, Gerald Ford, who lost to Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter in 1976. The American economy struggled, with the twin demons of inflation and slow economic growth dogging the average taxpayer. In addition, the first major wave of outsourcing began to eliminate formerly plentiful and well-paying construction and manufacturing jobs. Carter's presidency saw its share of crises, including the overthrow of the American-allied Shah of Iran in 1979, sparking a second oil crisis. The Iranian fundamentalists took Americans hostage for over a year and Carter appeared powerless to stop it. In addition, the Soviet Union's budget was brimming due to high oil prices and it became more aggressive across the globe. In 1979 the Soviets invaded neighboring Afghanistan to prop up a friendly Communist regime there. As the United States fell back into recession in 1980 Carter lost the confidence of the American people and was replaced by former California Governor Ronald Reagan by a 51-41% margin. Only sharp changes could get the United States out of its 'malaise' period.<br />
<br />
==End of the Oil Crisis==<br />
<br />
On the first day Ronald Reagan entered the Oval Office, major change occurred. Iran released all of the American hostages, who departed Iranian airspace around the time he began his inaugural address. Iran faced tremendous pressure, not just from the hostage crisis, but also the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988). The massive spike in oil prices was met with varying responses. American oil companies had ramped up exploration and extraction efforts and soon brought new oil on the market. The war in the Middle East also forced major oil producers to begin a price race to the bottom. However, the largest factor appeared to be a policy decision started during President Carter's administration.<br />
<br />
President Carter appointed Paul Volcker as the Chairman of the Federal Reserve in 1979. Volcker implemented a dramatic effort to reduce the inflation that had been affecting the United States for the better part of a decade. The Fed drastically increased interest rates, which had the dual effect of causing a recession and sharply reducing inflation. The effort may have cost Carter the Presidency, but was continued under President Reagan. Interest rates fell from over 10% to under 4%, strengthening the U.S. dollar and helping slash the cost of oil. The dramatic fall of petroleum prices proved to be a boon for the U.S. economy while severely hurting that of the Soviet Union, which was dependent on profits from exports.<br />
<br />
The United States also saw dramatic rise in GDP growth. The 1970s had multiple years where nominal growth was similar to the rise in inflation. A series of tax cuts and reductions in regulation coupled with low oil prices led to a sharp increase. In 1980 real GDP declined by 0.3%. By 1984, real GDP grew by a blistering 7.3%. Unemployment also fell sharply. As the U.S. economy roared, the Soviet command economy suffered mightily. The rigid form of state control led to a lack of consumer goods and public discontent.<br />
<br />
==Contrasting Leadership==<br />
<br />
In the United States, President Reagan polled as one of the more popular presidents of the 20th Century. He was already familiar to millions of Americans through his days as an actor and the governor of the nation's most populous state. Despite being the oldest elected President, Reagan remained in office for eight years, projecting an air of stability. Reagan's iconic speech at the Berlin Wall helped to galvanize opposition to Soviet power.<br />
<br />
Things could not be more difficult for the Soviets. Longtime dictator Leonid Brezhnev had been in power since 1964 and had been a frequent foil for President Carter. By the time Reagan took office Brezhnev was 74 and in poor health. When Brezhnev died in 1982 we was promptly replaced by 68 year old Yuri Andropov, a former director of the KGB, who also died in February 1984. Andropov was replaced by 72 year old Konstantin Chernenko, who died in March 1985. Facing three successive deaths as the Soviet economy stalled, the Politburo chose 54 year old Mikhail Gorbachev. He was the first, and only leader of the Soviet Union that reached adulthood after the Second World War. Gorbachev's leadership was seen as more conciliatory and fostered new relations with the West. <ref>Gaddis, John Lewis. ''We now know: rethinking Cold War history.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. Pages 45-49.</ref><br />
<br />
==Foreign Policy==<br />
<br />
For the Soviet Union there was one overhanging albatross: the war in Afghanistan. Brezhnev had invaded the country in 1979 and now the U.S.S.R. was mired in a tremendous struggle against varying tribes and foreign mujahadeen. The U.S. offered substantial military and financial assistance to the rebels, including the introduction of Stinger missiles, which destroyed Soviet dominance of the skies. The Soviets never exercised control over the entire country, instead having authority over the capital of Kabul and a corridor within the country. The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan is commonly referred to as its country's Vietnam War. After suffering about 15,000 dead, the Soviets withdrew from the country in 1989.<br />
<br />
Also facing the Soviets was a lack of international trust. Relations with the West and China remained strained. The Soviets' accidental shootdown of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in September 1983 that killed 269 civilians further widened distrust of Russia. Gorbachev attempted to craft new agreements with the West. In 1985 Gorbachev unilaterally removed Soviet SS-20 intermediate range nuclear missiles from Europe. The next year he announced the start of the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan. Reagan and Gorbachev met in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1986 to discuss possible nuclear weapon disarmament. Both agreed on wide-ranging proposals in principle, including the elimination of all nuclear weapons. These negotiations were not final but led directly to the adoption of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987.<br />
<br />
Part of Reagan's policy included a large military buildup. Hundreds of old navy vessels were rehabbed and pressed into service. The size and quality of the United States army and air force also improved. The proposed development of an anti-ballistic missile defense system, the Strategic Defense Initiative, frightened the Soviets. Although not directly related, the U.S. took a lead in space development with the first flight of the space shuttle in 1981, sparking a Soviet shuttle effort, the Buran. The Soviets spent much of the 1980s attempting to catch up. Soviet military expenditure rose at a time of declining economic growth, leading to a much larger share of the overall GDP going to the military rather than consumer goods. <br />
<br />
Perhaps the largest change in Soviet foreign policy was that of weakening total control over Eastern Europe. The Soviet bloc faced a series of crushing interventions against any semblance of independence, including in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968. Gorbachev announced in 1988 that he would cease this policy, which further increased calls for self-determination. Many in the Eastern European states soured on the slow economic growth and poor conditions under Soviet domination. As Gorbachev opened up the Soviet bloc's press and economy Eastern Europe would begin fading farther out of his grasp.<br />
<br />
==Glasnost, Perestroika, and the Wider World==<br />
<br />
Gorbachev recognized much of the rot that threatened to undermine every aspect of Soviet society. He understood that the structure of the Soviet Union could not tolerate rapid, radical change and instead introduced a series of reforms meant to bring more liberty and growth to the U.S.S.R. Gorbachev introduced the glasnost policy, sometimes referred to as 'openness' in the West in 1986. These reforms did not completely open up Soviet society, but did reduce censorship and allow some criticism of the past. As Soviet citizens and intellectuals read a more accurate version of Soviet history, discontent would follow. Residents of the Soviet bloc would also read accurate government statistics and about the true standard of living in the West. Gorbachev also restructured the government of the Soviet Union, creating the position of President assume much of the power given to the General Secretary of the Communist Party. The most profound effects of this new policies would take place in Eastern Europe. The countries under Soviet domination now demanded more liberties.<br />
<br />
Much of the pushback against the Soviet system started with Poland. The trade union Solidarity, or Solidarność in Polish, was founded in 1980 under Lech Walesa. This occurred after a series of strikes at the Gdansk shipyard. About a third of the entire working population joined the organization, leading to a sharp crackdown. The Polish Communist regime instituted a state of martial law from 1981 until 1983. The government soon recognized that the organization would not be broken by sheer force, leading to its acceptance by the regime. Polish Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła was elected Pope in 1978. This and the rise of Solidarity helped engender nationalist and religious revivals in the country. The Polish Communists had no choice but to allow elections, which took place in June 1989. While the Communist Party prevented a truly free election, most Polish citizens voted for the opposition. Walesa was elected President in December 1990.<ref>Kaiser, Robert John. ''The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Pages 78-88</ref><br />
<br />
The spirit of resistance began to spread across the Eastern Bloc and into the Soviet Union itself. The Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were forcibly added to the U.S.S.R. in 1940 by Josef Stalin. By the mid to late 1980s increasing movements called for increased freedoms and outright independence. By 1991 all three states were independent, starting a precedent that would start breaking the Soviet republics away from Moscow. In Russia itself nationalist leader Boris Yeltsin, the mayor of Moscow, began to assert more authority. Russia within the Soviet Union gained increased authority as powers devolved as the Soviet Union declined. The United States actively supported independence movements across Eastern Europe.<br />
<br />
Gorbachev also intended to modernize the antiquated command economy of the Soviet Union. He instituted Perestroika, or Restructuring, in 1987. As Soviet standards of living declined Gorbachev believed that allowing limited direct capitalism could reverse this trend. Companies were no longer directly controlled by the state but instead by worker's councils. These companies were no longer bankrolled by Moscow, leading to the decline of unprofitable enterprises. Gorbachev's Law on Collectives in May 1988 allowed limited private property for the first time since the 1920s. The U.S.S.R. did the seemingly unthinkable and allowed foreign investment in the country. However, hallmarks of a socialist economy remained in place, including currency controls, price controls, and state control of the means of production. While these initiatives were certainly bold, they did not solve the Soviet Union's economic issues, and coupled with glasnost seemed to increase divisions that led to its fall.<ref>Gorbachev, Mikhail. "Perestroika: New thinking for our country and the world." (1987).</ref><br />
<br />
==Instability and the Ultimate Fall==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union faced a series of internal and external challenges that it was unable to meet. Gorbachev's reforms had improved some conditions while giving enough of an opening for anti-Communist ideas to spread. Nationalist forces, some suppressed since the First World War began to break out. Violence in the Caucasus began as ethnic Armenians demanded the Azerbaijani-controlled territory Nagorno-Karabakh be united with the Soviet Republic of Armenia. Soviet power appeared on the wane everywhere-- Soviet forces were pulling out of Afghanistan after a decade of unsuccessful war, protests roiled Eastern Europe and the Baltic republics, and the Soviet economy continued to lag.<ref>Lebow, Richard Ned, and Thomas Risse-Kappen, eds. ''International relations theory and the end of the Cold War.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.</ref><br />
<br />
One by one nations of Eastern Europe began to remove themselves from the Soviet sphere of influence. Protests began across Poland, Hungary, and East Germany in the spring of 1989. After a declaration that East German citizens could visit West Germany unimpeded on November 9th the Berlin Wall was opened and travel between the two Germanies began. Germany would be reunited the next year. By the end of 1990 each of the former Soviet satellite states were against independent with democratically elected governments.<br />
<br />
With the decline of the Soviet Union and fall of its imperial status in Eastern Europe, Communist Party hardliners determined that something had to be done. Led by Vice President Gennadi Yanayev the ringleaders launched a coup against Gorbachev while he was on vacation in August 1991. Massive public protests led by Yelstin helped to stall the effort. Gorbachev returned to Moscow and assumed control. However, his actual power was severely limited. The power of the Communist Party had essentially collapsed. Gorbachev resigned as Communist Party General Secretary later that month. As the Soviet Union appeared on the brink of collapse and with a multitude of the constituent republics either outright independent or with substantial autonomy, Gorbachev announced his resignation on December 25, 1991, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref>Wohlforth, William C. "Realism and the End of the Cold War." ''International Security'' 19, no. 3 (1994): 91-129.</ref><br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
The fall of the Soviet Union had a multitude of effects on the wider world, including the democratization of almost all of Eastern Europe. Russia faced a turbulent 1990s with Yelstin as President. The country partially modernized and entered into a market economy, but much of the economy was instead taken over by oligarchs and the Russian mafia. Gorbachev and Reagan's actions helped bring an end to almost fifty years of hostilities in Europe and beyond and close out the Cold War.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]] [[Category:Cold War]] [[Category:20th Century History]] [[Category:Diplomatic History]] [[Category:History of United States]]<br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Why_did_the_United_States_Gain_the_Upper_Hand_Against_the_Soviet_Union_at_the_End_of_the_Cold_War&diff=2463Why did the United States Gain the Upper Hand Against the Soviet Union at the End of the Cold War2016-06-10T03:41:35Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>As previously featured on our site, the United States faced a series of real and growing crises during the 1970s. Despite these setbacks and the impression that the Soviet Union was gaining strength, the next decade would be a dramatic reversal. A combination of factors, including the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, plummeting oil prices, and public unrest would help lead to the fall of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Loss of faith in government followed American involvement in the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal that resulted in President Richard Nixon's resignation. For the first time, the United States was headed by an unelected President, Gerald Ford, who lost to Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter in 1976. The American economy struggled, with the twin demons of inflation and slow economic growth dogging the average taxpayer. In addition, the first major wave of outsourcing began to eliminate formerly plentiful and well-paying construction and manufacturing jobs. Carter's presidency saw its share of crises, including the overthrow of the American-allied Shah of Iran in 1979, sparking a second oil crisis. The Iranian fundamentalists took Americans hostage for over a year and Carter appeared powerless to stop it. In addition, the Soviet Union's budget was brimming due to high oil prices and it became more aggressive across the globe. In 1979 the Soviets invaded neighboring Afghanistan to prop up a friendly Communist regime there. As the United States fell back into recession in 1980 Carter lost the confidence of the American people and was replaced by former California Governor Ronald Reagan by a 51-41% margin. Only sharp changes could get the United States out of its 'malaise' period.<br />
<br />
==End of the Oil Crisis==<br />
<br />
On the first day Ronald Reagan entered the Oval Office, major change occurred. Iran released all of the American hostages, who departed Iranian airspace around the time he began his inaugural address. Iran faced tremendous pressure, not just from the hostage crisis, but also the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988). The massive spike in oil prices was met with varying responses. American oil companies had ramped up exploration and extraction efforts and soon brought new oil on the market. The war in the Middle East also forced major oil producers to begin a price race to the bottom. However, the largest factor appeared to be a policy decision started during President Carter's administration.<br />
<br />
President Carter appointed Paul Volcker as the Chairman of the Federal Reserve in 1979. Volcker implemented a dramatic effort to reduce the inflation that had been affecting the United States for the better part of a decade. The Fed drastically increased interest rates, which had the dual effect of causing a recession and sharply reducing inflation. The effort may have cost Carter the Presidency, but was continued under President Reagan. Interest rates fell from over 10% to under 4%, strengthening the U.S. dollar and helping slash the cost of oil. The dramatic fall of petroleum prices proved to be a boon for the U.S. economy while severely hurting that of the Soviet Union, which was dependent on profits from exports.<br />
<br />
The United States also saw dramatic rise in GDP growth. The 1970s had multiple years where nominal growth was similar to the rise in inflation. A series of tax cuts and reductions in regulation coupled with low oil prices led to a sharp increase. In 1980 real GDP declined by 0.3%. By 1984, real GDP grew by a blistering 7.3%. Unemployment also fell sharply. As the U.S. economy roared, the Soviet command economy suffered mightily. The rigid form of state control led to a lack of consumer goods and public discontent.<br />
<br />
==Contrasting Leadership==<br />
<br />
In the United States, President Reagan polled as one of the more popular presidents of the 20th Century. He was already familiar to millions of Americans through his days as an actor and the governor of the nation's most populous state. Despite being the oldest elected President, Reagan remained in office for eight years, projecting an air of stability. Reagan's iconic speech at the Berlin Wall helped to galvanize opposition to Soviet power.<br />
<br />
Things could not be more difficult for the Soviets. Longtime dictator Leonid Brezhnev had been in power since 1964 and had been a frequent foil for President Carter. By the time Reagan took office Brezhnev was 74 and in poor health. When Brezhnev died in 1982 we was promptly replaced by 68 year old Yuri Andropov, a former director of the KGB, who also died in February 1984. Andropov was replaced by 72 year old Konstantin Chernenko, who died in March 1985. Facing three successive deaths as the Soviet economy stalled, the Politburo chose 54 year old Mikhail Gorbachev. He was the first, and only leader of the Soviet Union that reached adulthood after the Second World War. Gorbachev's leadership was seen as more conciliatory and fostered new relations with the West. <ref>Gaddis, John Lewis. ''We now know: rethinking Cold War history.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. Pages 45-49.</ref><br />
<br />
==Foreign Policy==<br />
<br />
For the Soviet Union there was one overhanging albatross: the war in Afghanistan. Brezhnev had invaded the country in 1979 and now the U.S.S.R. was mired in a tremendous struggle against varying tribes and foreign mujahadeen. The U.S. offered substantial military and financial assistance to the rebels, including the introduction of Stinger missiles, which destroyed Soviet dominance of the skies. The Soviets never exercised control over the entire country, instead having authority over the capital of Kabul and a corridor within the country. The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan is commonly referred to as its country's Vietnam War. After suffering about 15,000 dead, the Soviets withdrew from the country in 1989.<br />
<br />
Also facing the Soviets was a lack of international trust. Relations with the West and China remained strained. The Soviets' accidental shootdown of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in September 1983 that killed 269 civilians further widened distrust of Russia. Gorbachev attempted to craft new agreements with the West. In 1985 Gorbachev unilaterally removed Soviet SS-20 intermediate range nuclear missiles from Europe. The next year he announced the start of the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan. Reagan and Gorbachev met in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1986 to discuss possible nuclear weapon disarmament. Both agreed on wide-ranging proposals in principle, including the elimination of all nuclear weapons. These negotiations were not final but led directly to the adoption of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987.<br />
<br />
Part of Reagan's policy included a large military buildup. Hundreds of old navy vessels were rehabbed and pressed into service. The size and quality of the United States army and air force also improved. The proposed development of an anti-ballistic missile defense system, the Strategic Defense Initiative, frightened the Soviets. Although not directly related, the U.S. took a lead in space development with the first flight of the space shuttle in 1981, sparking a Soviet shuttle effort, the Buran. The Soviets spent much of the 1980s attempting to catch up. Soviet military expenditure rose at a time of declining economic growth, leading to a much larger share of the overall GDP going to the military rather than consumer goods. <br />
<br />
Perhaps the largest change in Soviet foreign policy was that of weakening total control over Eastern Europe. The Soviet bloc faced a series of crushing interventions against any semblance of independence, including in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968. Gorbachev announced in 1988 that he would cease this policy, which further increased calls for self-determination. Many in the Eastern European states soured on the slow economic growth and poor conditions under Soviet domination. As Gorbachev opened up the Soviet bloc's press and economy Eastern Europe would begin fading farther out of his grasp.<br />
<br />
==Glasnost, Perestroika, and the Wider World==<br />
<br />
Gorbachev recognized much of the rot that threatened to undermine every aspect of Soviet society. He understood that the structure of the Soviet Union could not tolerate rapid, radical change and instead introduced a series of reforms meant to bring more liberty and growth to the U.S.S.R. Gorbachev introduced the glasnost policy, sometimes referred to as 'openness' in the West in 1986. These reforms did not completely open up Soviet society, but did reduce censorship and allow some criticism of the past. As Soviet citizens and intellectuals read a more accurate version of Soviet history, discontent would follow. Residents of the Soviet bloc would also read accurate government statistics and about the true standard of living in the West. Gorbachev also restructured the government of the Soviet Union, creating the position of President assume much of the power given to the General Secretary of the Communist Party. The most profound effects of this new policies would take place in Eastern Europe. The countries under Soviet domination now demanded more liberties.<br />
<br />
Much of the pushback against the Soviet system started with Poland. The trade union Solidarity, or Solidarność in Polish, was founded in 1980 under Lech Walesa. This occurred after a series of strikes at the Gdansk shipyard. About a third of the entire working population joined the organization, leading to a sharp crackdown. The Polish Communist regime instituted a state of martial law from 1981 until 1983. The government soon recognized that the organization would not be broken by sheer force, leading to its acceptance by the regime. Polish Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła was elected Pope in 1978. This and the rise of Solidarity helped engender nationalist and religious revivals in the country. The Polish Communists had no choice but to allow elections, which took place in June 1989. While the Communist Party prevented a truly free election, most Polish citizens voted for the opposition. Walesa was elected President in December 1990.<ref>Kaiser, Robert John. ''The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Pages 78-88</ref><br />
<br />
The spirit of resistance began to spread across the Eastern Bloc and into the Soviet Union itself. The Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were forcibly added to the U.S.S.R. in 1940 by Josef Stalin. By the mid to late 1980s increasing movements called for increased freedoms and outright independence. By 1991 all three states were independent, starting a precedent that would start breaking the Soviet republics away from Moscow. In Russia itself nationalist leader Boris Yeltsin, the mayor of Moscow, began to assert more authority. Russia within the Soviet Union gained increased authority as powers devolved as the Soviet Union declined. The United States actively supported independence movements across Eastern Europe.<br />
<br />
Gorbachev also intended to modernize the antiquated command economy of the Soviet Union. He instituted Perestroika, or Restructuring, in 1987. As Soviet standards of living declined Gorbachev believed that allowing limited direct capitalism could reverse this trend. Companies were no longer directly controlled by the state but instead by worker's councils. These companies were no longer bankrolled by Moscow, leading to the decline of unprofitable enterprises. Gorbachev's Law on Collectives in May 1988 allowed limited private property for the first time since the 1920s. The U.S.S.R. did the seemingly unthinkable and allowed foreign investment in the country. However, hallmarks of a socialist economy remained in place, including currency controls, price controls, and state control of the means of production. While these initiatives were certainly bold, they did not solve the Soviet Union's economic issues, and coupled with glasnost seemed to increase divisions that led to its fall.<ref>Gorbachev, Mikhail. "Perestroika: New thinking for our country and the world." (1987).</ref><br />
<br />
==Instability and the Ultimate Fall==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union faced a series of internal and external challenges that it was unable to meet. Gorbachev's reforms had improved some conditions while giving enough of an opening for anti-Communist ideas to spread. Nationalist forces, some suppressed since the First World War began to break out. Violence in the Caucasus began as ethnic Armenians demanded the Azerbaijani-controlled territory Nagorno-Karabakh be united with the Soviet Republic of Armenia. Soviet power appeared on the wane everywhere-- Soviet forces were pulling out of Afghanistan after a decade of unsuccessful war, protests roiled Eastern Europe and the Baltic republics, and the Soviet economy continued to lag.</ref>Lebow, Richard Ned, and Thomas Risse-Kappen, eds. --International relations theory and the end of the Cold War.-- New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.</ref><br />
<br />
One by one nations of Eastern Europe began to remove themselves from the Soviet sphere of influence. Protests began across Poland, Hungary, and East Germany in the spring of 1989. After a declaration that East German citizens could visit West Germany unimpeded on November 9th the Berlin Wall was opened and travel between the two Germanies began. Germany would be reunited the next year. By the end of 1990 each of the former Soviet satellite states were against independent with democratically elected governments.<br />
<br />
With the decline of the Soviet Union and fall of its imperial status in Eastern Europe, Communist Party hardliners determined that something had to be done. Led by Vice President Gennadi Yanayev the ringleaders launched a coup against Gorbachev while he was on vacation in August 1991. Massive public protests led by Yelstin helped to stall the effort. Gorbachev returned to Moscow and assumed control. However, his actual power was severely limited. The power of the Communist Party had essentially collapsed. Gorbachev resigned as Communist Party General Secretary later that month. As the Soviet Union appeared on the brink of collapse and with a multitude of the constituent republics either outright independent or with substantial autonomy, Gorbachev announced his resignation on December 25, 1991, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref>Wohlforth, William C. "Realism and the End of the Cold War." ''International Security'' 19, no. 3 (1994): 91-129.</ref><br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
The fall of the Soviet Union had a multitude of effects on the wider world, including the democratization of almost all of Eastern Europe. Russia faced a turbulent 1990s with Yelstin as President. The country partially modernized and entered into a market economy, but much of the economy was instead taken over by oligarchs and the Russian mafia. Gorbachev and Reagan's actions helped bring an end to almost fifty years of hostilities in Europe and beyond and close out the Cold War.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]] [[Category:Cold War]] [[Category:20th Century History]] [[Category:Diplomatic History]] [[Category:History of United States]]<br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Why_did_the_United_States_Gain_the_Upper_Hand_Against_the_Soviet_Union_at_the_End_of_the_Cold_War&diff=2460Why did the United States Gain the Upper Hand Against the Soviet Union at the End of the Cold War2016-06-10T03:40:25Z<p>TheMayor: Created page with "As previously featured on our site, the United States faced a series of real and growing crises during the 1970s. Despite these setbacks and the impression that the Soviet Uni..."</p>
<hr />
<div>As previously featured on our site, the United States faced a series of real and growing crises during the 1970s. Despite these setbacks and the impression that the Soviet Union was gaining strength, the next decade would be a dramatic reversal. A combination of factors, including the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, plummeting oil prices, and public unrest would help lead to the fall of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Loss of faith in government followed American involvement in the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal that resulted in President Richard Nixon's resignation. For the first time, the United States was headed by an unelected President, Gerald Ford, who lost to Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter in 1976. The American economy struggled, with the twin demons of inflation and slow economic growth dogging the average taxpayer. In addition, the first major wave of outsourcing began to eliminate formerly plentiful and well-paying construction and manufacturing jobs. Carter's presidency saw its share of crises, including the overthrow of the American-allied Shah of Iran in 1979, sparking a second oil crisis. The Iranian fundamentalists took Americans hostage for over a year and Carter appeared powerless to stop it. In addition, the Soviet Union's budget was brimming due to high oil prices and it became more aggressive across the globe. In 1979 the Soviets invaded neighboring Afghanistan to prop up a friendly Communist regime there. As the United States fell back into recession in 1980 Carter lost the confidence of the American people and was replaced by former California Governor Ronald Reagan by a 51-41% margin. Only sharp changes could get the United States out of its 'malaise' period.<br />
<br />
==End of the Oil Crisis==<br />
<br />
On the first day Ronald Reagan entered the Oval Office, major change occurred. Iran released all of the American hostages, who departed Iranian airspace around the time he began his inaugural address. Iran faced tremendous pressure, not just from the hostage crisis, but also the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988). The massive spike in oil prices was met with varying responses. American oil companies had ramped up exploration and extraction efforts and soon brought new oil on the market. The war in the Middle East also forced major oil producers to begin a price race to the bottom. However, the largest factor appeared to be a policy decision started during President Carter's administration.<br />
<br />
President Carter appointed Paul Volcker as the Chairman of the Federal Reserve in 1979. Volcker implemented a dramatic effort to reduce the inflation that had been affecting the United States for the better part of a decade. The Fed drastically increased interest rates, which had the dual effect of causing a recession and sharply reducing inflation. The effort may have cost Carter the Presidency, but was continued under President Reagan. Interest rates fell from over 10% to under 4%, strengthening the U.S. dollar and helping slash the cost of oil. The dramatic fall of petroleum prices proved to be a boon for the U.S. economy while severely hurting that of the Soviet Union, which was dependent on profits from exports.<br />
<br />
The United States also saw dramatic rise in GDP growth. The 1970s had multiple years where nominal growth was similar to the rise in inflation. A series of tax cuts and reductions in regulation coupled with low oil prices led to a sharp increase. In 1980 real GDP declined by 0.3%. By 1984, real GDP grew by a blistering 7.3%. Unemployment also fell sharply. As the U.S. economy roared, the Soviet command economy suffered mightily. The rigid form of state control led to a lack of consumer goods and public discontent.<br />
<br />
==Contrasting Leadership==<br />
<br />
In the United States, President Reagan polled as one of the more popular presidents of the 20th Century. He was already familiar to millions of Americans through his days as an actor and the governor of the nation's most populous state. Despite being the oldest elected President, Reagan remained in office for eight years, projecting an air of stability. Reagan's iconic speech at the Berlin Wall helped to galvanize opposition to Soviet power.<br />
<br />
Things could not be more difficult for the Soviets. Longtime dictator Leonid Brezhnev had been in power since 1964 and had been a frequent foil for President Carter. By the time Reagan took office Brezhnev was 74 and in poor health. When Brezhnev died in 1982 we was promptly replaced by 68 year old Yuri Andropov, a former director of the KGB, who also died in February 1984. Andropov was replaced by 72 year old Konstantin Chernenko, who died in March 1985. Facing three successive deaths as the Soviet economy stalled, the Politburo chose 54 year old Mikhail Gorbachev. He was the first, and only leader of the Soviet Union that reached adulthood after the Second World War. Gorbachev's leadership was seen as more conciliatory and fostered new relations with the West. <ref>Gaddis, John Lewis. --We now know: rethinking Cold War history.-- Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. Pages 45-49.</ref><br />
<br />
==Foreign Policy==<br />
<br />
For the Soviet Union there was one overhanging albatross: the war in Afghanistan. Brezhnev had invaded the country in 1979 and now the U.S.S.R. was mired in a tremendous struggle against varying tribes and foreign mujahadeen. The U.S. offered substantial military and financial assistance to the rebels, including the introduction of Stinger missiles, which destroyed Soviet dominance of the skies. The Soviets never exercised control over the entire country, instead having authority over the capital of Kabul and a corridor within the country. The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan is commonly referred to as its country's Vietnam War. After suffering about 15,000 dead, the Soviets withdrew from the country in 1989.<br />
<br />
Also facing the Soviets was a lack of international trust. Relations with the West and China remained strained. The Soviets' accidental shootdown of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in September 1983 that killed 269 civilians further widened distrust of Russia. Gorbachev attempted to craft new agreements with the West. In 1985 Gorbachev unilaterally removed Soviet SS-20 intermediate range nuclear missiles from Europe. The next year he announced the start of the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan. Reagan and Gorbachev met in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1986 to discuss possible nuclear weapon disarmament. Both agreed on wide-ranging proposals in principle, including the elimination of all nuclear weapons. These negotiations were not final but led directly to the adoption of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987.<br />
<br />
Part of Reagan's policy included a large military buildup. Hundreds of old navy vessels were rehabbed and pressed into service. The size and quality of the United States army and air force also improved. The proposed development of an anti-ballistic missile defense system, the Strategic Defense Initiative, frightened the Soviets. Although not directly related, the U.S. took a lead in space development with the first flight of the space shuttle in 1981, sparking a Soviet shuttle effort, the Buran. The Soviets spent much of the 1980s attempting to catch up. Soviet military expenditure rose at a time of declining economic growth, leading to a much larger share of the overall GDP going to the military rather than consumer goods. <br />
<br />
Perhaps the largest change in Soviet foreign policy was that of weakening total control over Eastern Europe. The Soviet bloc faced a series of crushing interventions against any semblance of independence, including in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968. Gorbachev announced in 1988 that he would cease this policy, which further increased calls for self-determination. Many in the Eastern European states soured on the slow economic growth and poor conditions under Soviet domination. As Gorbachev opened up the Soviet bloc's press and economy Eastern Europe would begin fading farther out of his grasp.<br />
<br />
==Glasnost, Perestroika, and the Wider World==<br />
<br />
Gorbachev recognized much of the rot that threatened to undermine every aspect of Soviet society. He understood that the structure of the Soviet Union could not tolerate rapid, radical change and instead introduced a series of reforms meant to bring more liberty and growth to the U.S.S.R. Gorbachev introduced the glasnost policy, sometimes referred to as 'openness' in the West in 1986. These reforms did not completely open up Soviet society, but did reduce censorship and allow some criticism of the past. As Soviet citizens and intellectuals read a more accurate version of Soviet history, discontent would follow. Residents of the Soviet bloc would also read accurate government statistics and about the true standard of living in the West. Gorbachev also restructured the government of the Soviet Union, creating the position of President assume much of the power given to the General Secretary of the Communist Party. The most profound effects of this new policies would take place in Eastern Europe. The countries under Soviet domination now demanded more liberties.<br />
<br />
Much of the pushback against the Soviet system started with Poland. The trade union Solidarity, or Solidarność in Polish, was founded in 1980 under Lech Walesa. This occurred after a series of strikes at the Gdansk shipyard. About a third of the entire working population joined the organization, leading to a sharp crackdown. The Polish Communist regime instituted a state of martial law from 1981 until 1983. The government soon recognized that the organization would not be broken by sheer force, leading to its acceptance by the regime. Polish Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła was elected Pope in 1978. This and the rise of Solidarity helped engender nationalist and religious revivals in the country. The Polish Communists had no choice but to allow elections, which took place in June 1989. While the Communist Party prevented a truly free election, most Polish citizens voted for the opposition. Walesa was elected President in December 1990.<ref>Kaiser, Robert John. --The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR.-- Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Pages 78-88</ref><br />
<br />
The spirit of resistance began to spread across the Eastern Bloc and into the Soviet Union itself. The Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were forcibly added to the U.S.S.R. in 1940 by Josef Stalin. By the mid to late 1980s increasing movements called for increased freedoms and outright independence. By 1991 all three states were independent, starting a precedent that would start breaking the Soviet republics away from Moscow. In Russia itself nationalist leader Boris Yeltsin, the mayor of Moscow, began to assert more authority. Russia within the Soviet Union gained increased authority as powers devolved as the Soviet Union declined. The United States actively supported independence movements across Eastern Europe.<br />
<br />
Gorbachev also intended to modernize the antiquated command economy of the Soviet Union. He instituted Perestroika, or Restructuring, in 1987. As Soviet standards of living declined Gorbachev believed that allowing limited direct capitalism could reverse this trend. Companies were no longer directly controlled by the state but instead by worker's councils. These companies were no longer bankrolled by Moscow, leading to the decline of unprofitable enterprises. Gorbachev's Law on Collectives in May 1988 allowed limited private property for the first time since the 1920s. The U.S.S.R. did the seemingly unthinkable and allowed foreign investment in the country. However, hallmarks of a socialist economy remained in place, including currency controls, price controls, and state control of the means of production. While these initiatives were certainly bold, they did not solve the Soviet Union's economic issues, and coupled with glasnost seemed to increase divisions that led to its fall.<ref>Gorbachev, Mikhail. "Perestroika: New thinking for our country and the world." (1987).</ref><br />
<br />
==Instability and the Ultimate Fall==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union faced a series of internal and external challenges that it was unable to meet. Gorbachev's reforms had improved some conditions while giving enough of an opening for anti-Communist ideas to spread. Nationalist forces, some suppressed since the First World War began to break out. Violence in the Caucasus began as ethnic Armenians demanded the Azerbaijani-controlled territory Nagorno-Karabakh be united with the Soviet Republic of Armenia. Soviet power appeared on the wane everywhere-- Soviet forces were pulling out of Afghanistan after a decade of unsuccessful war, protests roiled Eastern Europe and the Baltic republics, and the Soviet economy continued to lag.</ref>Lebow, Richard Ned, and Thomas Risse-Kappen, eds. --International relations theory and the end of the Cold War.-- New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.</ref><br />
<br />
One by one nations of Eastern Europe began to remove themselves from the Soviet sphere of influence. Protests began across Poland, Hungary, and East Germany in the spring of 1989. After a declaration that East German citizens could visit West Germany unimpeded on November 9th the Berlin Wall was opened and travel between the two Germanies began. Germany would be reunited the next year. By the end of 1990 each of the former Soviet satellite states were against independent with democratically elected governments.<br />
<br />
With the decline of the Soviet Union and fall of its imperial status in Eastern Europe, Communist Party hardliners determined that something had to be done. Led by Vice President Gennadi Yanayev the ringleaders launched a coup against Gorbachev while he was on vacation in August 1991. Massive public protests led by Yelstin helped to stall the effort. Gorbachev returned to Moscow and assumed control. However, his actual power was severely limited. The power of the Communist Party had essentially collapsed. Gorbachev resigned as Communist Party General Secretary later that month. As the Soviet Union appeared on the brink of collapse and with a multitude of the constituent republics either outright independent or with substantial autonomy, Gorbachev announced his resignation on December 25, 1991, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref>Wohlforth, William C. "Realism and the End of the Cold War." --International Security-- 19, no. 3 (1994): 91-129.</ref><br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
The fall of the Soviet Union had a multitude of effects on the wider world, including the democratization of almost all of Eastern Europe. Russia faced a turbulent 1990s with Yelstin as President. The country partially modernized and entered into a market economy, but much of the economy was instead taken over by oligarchs and the Russian mafia. Gorbachev and Reagan's actions helped bring an end to almost fifty years of hostilities in Europe and beyond and close out the Cold War.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]] [[Category:Cold War]] [[Category:20th Century History]] [[Category:Diplomatic History]] [[Category:History of United States]]<br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_%27Malaise%27_Period_of_Struggle_in_the_1970s_Occur_in_the_United_States&diff=2072How did the 'Malaise' Period of Struggle in the 1970s Occur in the United States2016-05-26T01:38:23Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>The 1970s saw a series of severe political and economic problems that convulsed much of the United States. Richard Nixon became the first president to resign in office, Gerald Ford became the first unelected president, and Jimmy Carter appeared unable to cope with increasing problems. Fallout from the Vietnam War and Watergate scandals disrupted public trust in government while two oil shocks and outsourcing caused tremendous shocks to the economy.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The 1960s were a tumultuous time for the United States and abroad. The U.S. saw the assassination of major figures, including President John F. Kennedy, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, and Martin Luther King. The country also became embroiled in the Vietnam War, with commitment peaking in 1968 with 600,000 combat troops-- many of whom were draftees. A burgeoning counterculture movement emerged as the Baby Boom generation came of age. Crime spiked across the country, even during a time of an improving economy. In this backdrop former Vice President Richard Nixon was elected President in 1968 on a platform of cracking down on crime and ending the war in Vietnam.<br />
<br />
==Nixon and the Public Trust==<br />
<br />
Nixon soon became a popular but polarizing figure. His commitment to law enforcement was matched by government spying on anti-war and fringe political groups. Nixon also implemented a series of major government reforms including the Environmental Protection Agency. The economy soon appeared to be stabilizing until a massive oil shock in Nixon's second term. The 1973 Yom Kippur War between Israel and its neighbors sent shockwaves through the rest of the world. Several major oil producers, led by Saudi Arabia, cut off oil to the West due to their support of Israel. By 1974 the price of crude quadrupled and global economies saw tremendous economic damage.<br />
<br />
Nixon's commitment to end the Vietnam War was split, to say the least. Nixon had substantially reduced the number of U.S. troops in Vietnam and ended the draft in 1973. However, Nixon also escalated bombing of Cambodia and Laos without Congressional approval. The U.S., South Vietnam, and North Vietnam all agreed to end the war in the Paris Peace Accords in 1973. Many Americans felt lied to about the cause and course of the war and the over 50,000 Americans that died in the war.<br />
<br />
[[File:Nixon-depart.png|200px|thumb|left|In 1974 Richard Nixon became the first and only president to resign]]<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Nixon Administration became embroiled with the largest scandal in American political history. Questions swirled about how much President Nixon knew about the break in at the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate Hotel, in Washington. As it became apparent that the White House directed a massive cover-up public support for Nixon cratered. Nixon's second term was spent in scandal, resulting in Nixon's resignation in August 1974. Trust in public institutions were shattered. <ref>Bernstein, Carl and Woodward, Bob, ''All the President's Men''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1974. Pages 67-71.</ref><br />
<br />
==Carter's Presidency and Further Trouble==<br />
<br />
Gerald Ford succeeded Nixon to the Presidency and pardoned him in September 1974. Ford's Presidency had to handle the aftermath of Vietnam and Watergate, as well as economic struggles. Ford had not been elected Vice President in 1972, but entered that position when Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned in October 1973 in the midst of a bribery scandal. South Vietnam fell to North Vietnamese forces in 1975. All of these factors combined to cast doubt on Ford's presidency.<br />
<br />
In November 1976 Democratic Governor of Georgia Jimmy Carter defeated Ford in a surprisingly tight race. Carter came to the Presidency with the promise of never lying to the American people. Carter aimed to elevate human rights to the top of his agenda and sought a series of new agreements with the Soviet Union. However, Carter's vision was largely crushed by reality. The economy remained weak and deficit spending and the end of the peg of the U.S. dollar to gold led to massive inflation and slow growth, referred to as Stagflation.<br />
<br />
[[File:Oilcrisis.gif|200px|thumb|left|The 1970s saw a massive spike in oil prices and several shortages]]<br />
<br />
Foreign policy realities began to weigh on American policy. American ally Shah Reza Pahlavi was overthrown and replaced by a hardline Islamic fundamentalist government in 1979. Oil shipments to the United States again slowed, leading to a second shortage and price hike. The Islamic Republic of Iran took Americans hostages from the U.S. embassy and held them for over a year. Later that same year, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to prop up a puppet communist regime. The Soviets benefited from the stark rise in oil prices, and in 1980 became the world's largest oil producer. As the Soviets were awash in cash and increasingly aggressive, President Carter appeared lost and without control.<ref>Dumbrell, John, ''The Carter Presidency: A Re-Evaluation.'' Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1995. Page 188.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Carter_Shah.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|The overthrow of the Shah of Iran proved crucial to Carter's presidency]]<br />
<br />
Facing these various challenges, Carter held a summit with leaders to discuss the nation's problems. Out of this meeting, Carter made an important July 1979 speech to the country, describing these issues as a "crisis of confidence" facing the nation. This speech was criticized as the "malaise" speech, further deteriorating public trust in Carter. Carter appointed Paul Volcker as the new Federal Reserve Chairman and pursued a sharp hike in interest rates to quell inflation. This effort would work in the long run but also caused a sharp recession right as Carter sought re-election. <ref>Hargrove, Erwin, ''Jimmy Carter as President: Leadership and the Politics of the Public Good''. Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1988. Pages 48, 66-68</ref><br />
<br />
==End of the Malaise==<br />
<br />
President Carter faced a strong primary challenge from Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy. Carter eventually won but the wound between the two did not heal during the election season. Carter was faced in the general election by Republican former California Governor Ronald Reagan and independent John Anderson. Carter hoped that Reagan's hardline anti-Communist message and conservative governance would allow for a relatively easy campaign. In November 1980 Carter was stunned as Reagan won about 51% to Carter's 41%. Carter left the White House regarded as a well-meaning but ultimately ineffective executive. <br />
<br />
As President Reagan took office, a series of events helped end the malaise period. Volcker's interest rate hikes began to kill inflation just as massive tax cuts began to spur the economy. Furthermore, Reagan's defense buildup restored American confidence against the Soviet Union. On inauguration day in January 1981 Iran released the hostages. Oil prices cratered during a large glut in the 1980s, causing a sharp decline in Soviet finances. Resistance to the Soviets in Afghanistan became more resolute and led to the eventual Soviet withdrawal in 1989. For many Americans the dark period of the 1970s appeared to be over and as stated in the 1984 presidential campaign, "it's morning in America again."</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_%27Malaise%27_Period_of_Struggle_in_the_1970s_Occur_in_the_United_States&diff=2071How did the 'Malaise' Period of Struggle in the 1970s Occur in the United States2016-05-26T01:30:16Z<p>TheMayor: Created page with "The 1970s saw a series of severe political and economic problems that convulsed much of the United States. Richard Nixon became the first president to resign in office, Gerald..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The 1970s saw a series of severe political and economic problems that convulsed much of the United States. Richard Nixon became the first president to resign in office, Gerald Ford became the first unelected president, and Jimmy Carter appeared unable to cope with increasing problems. Fallout from the Vietnam War and Watergate scandals disrupted public trust in government while two oil shocks and outsourcing caused tremendous shocks to the economy.<br />
<br />
''Introduction''<br />
<br />
The 1960s were a tumultuous time for the United States and abroad. The U.S. saw the assassination of major figures, including President John F. Kennedy, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, and Martin Luther King. The country also became embroiled in the Vietnam War, with commitment peaking in 1968 with 600,000 combat troops-- many of whom were draftees. A burgeoning counterculture movement emerged as the Baby Boom generation came of age. Crime spiked across the country, even during a time of an improving economy. In this backdrop former Vice President Richard Nixon was elected President in 1968 on a platform of cracking down on crime and ending the war in Vietnam.<br />
<br />
''Nixon and the Public Trust''<br />
<br />
Nixon soon became a popular but polarizing figure. His commitment to law enforcement was matched by government spying on anti-war and fringe political groups. Nixon also implemented a series of major government reforms including the Environmental Protection Agency. The economy soon appeared to be stabilizing until a massive oil shock in Nixon's second term. The 1973 Yom Kippur War between Israel and its neighbors sent shockwaves through the rest of the world. Several major oil producers, led by Saudi Arabia, cut off oil to the West due to their support of Israel. By 1974 the price of crude quadrupled and global economies saw tremendous economic damage.<br />
<br />
Nixon's commitment to end the Vietnam War was split, to say the least. Nixon had substantially reduced the number of U.S. troops in Vietnam and ended the draft in 1973. However, Nixon also escalated bombing of Cambodia and Laos without Congressional approval. The U.S., South Vietnam, and North Vietnam all agreed to end the war in the Paris Peace Accords in 1973. Many Americans felt lied to about the cause and course of the war and the over 50,000 Americans that died in the war.<br />
<br />
[[File:Nixon-depart.png|200px|thumb|left|In 1974 Richard Nixon became the first and only president to resign]]<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Nixon Administration became embroiled with the largest scandal in American political history. Questions swirled about how much President Nixon knew about the break in at the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate Hotel, in Washington. As it became apparent that the White House directed a massive cover-up public support for Nixon cratered. Nixon's second term was spent in scandal, resulting in Nixon's resignation in August 1974. Trust in public institutions were shattered. <ref>Bernstein, Carl and Woodward, Bob, '''All the President's Men'''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1974. Pages 67-71.</ref><br />
<br />
''Carter's Presidency and Further Trouble''<br />
<br />
Gerald Ford succeeded Nixon to the Presidency and pardoned him in September 1974. Ford's Presidency had to handle the aftermath of Vietnam and Watergate, as well as economic struggles. Ford had not been elected Vice President in 1972, but entered that position when Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned in October 1973 in the midst of a bribery scandal. South Vietnam fell to North Vietnamese forces in 1975. All of these factors combined to cast doubt on Ford's presidency.<br />
<br />
In November 1976 Democratic Governor of Georgia Jimmy Carter defeated Ford in a surprisingly tight race. Carter came to the Presidency with the promise of never lying to the American people. Carter aimed to elevate human rights to the top of his agenda and sought a series of new agreements with the Soviet Union. However, Carter's vision was largely crushed by reality. The economy remained weak and deficit spending and the end of the peg of the U.S. dollar to gold led to massive inflation and slow growth, referred to as Stagflation.<br />
<br />
[[File:Oilcrisis.gif|200px|thumb|left|The 1970s saw a massive spike in oil prices and several shortages]]<br />
<br />
Foreign policy realities began to weigh on American policy. American ally Shah Reza Pahlavi was overthrown and replaced by a hardline Islamic fundamentalist government in 1979. Oil shipments to the United States again slowed, leading to a second shortage and price hike. The Islamic Republic of Iran took Americans hostages from the U.S. embassy and held them for over a year. Later that same year, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to prop up a puppet communist regime. The Soviets benefited from the stark rise in oil prices, and in 1980 became the world's largest oil producer. As the Soviets were awash in cash and increasingly aggressive, President Carter appeared lost and without control.<ref>Dumbrell, John, '''The Carter Presidency: A Re-Evaluation.''' Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1995. Page 188.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Carter_Shah.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|The overthrow of the Shah of Iran proved crucial to Carter's presidency]]<br />
<br />
Facing these various challenges, Carter held a summit with leaders to discuss the nation's problems. Out of this meeting, Carter made an important July 1979 speech to the country, describing these issues as a "crisis of confidence" facing the nation. This speech was criticized as the "malaise" speech, further deteriorating public trust in Carter. Carter appointed Paul Volcker as the new Federal Reserve Chairman and pursued a sharp hike in interest rates to quell inflation. This effort would work in the long run but also caused a sharp recession right as Carter sought re-election. <ref>Hargrove, Erwin, '''Jimmy Carter as President: Leadership and the Politics of the Public Good'''. Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1988. Pages 48, 66-68</ref><br />
<br />
''End of the Malaise''<br />
<br />
President Carter faced a strong primary challenge from Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy. Carter eventually won but the wound between the two did not heal during the election season. Carter was faced in the general election by Republican former California Governor Ronald Reagan and independent John Anderson. Carter hoped that Reagan's hardline anti-Communist message and conservative governance would allow for a relatively easy campaign. In November 1980 Carter was stunned as Reagan won about 51% to Carter's 41%. Carter left the White House regarded as a well-meaning but ultimately ineffective executive. <br />
<br />
As President Reagan took office, a series of events helped end the malaise period. Volcker's interest rate hikes began to kill inflation just as massive tax cuts began to spur the economy. Furthermore, Reagan's defense buildup restored American confidence against the Soviet Union. On inauguration day in January 1981 Iran released the hostages. Oil prices cratered during a large glut in the 1980s, causing a sharp decline in Soviet finances. Resistance to the Soviets in Afghanistan became more resolute and led to the eventual Soviet withdrawal in 1989. For many Americans the dark period of the 1970s appeared to be over and as stated in the 1984 presidential campaign, "it's morning in America again."</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:Oilcrisis.gif&diff=2070File:Oilcrisis.gif2016-05-26T01:29:29Z<p>TheMayor: GASOLINE DEALERS IN OREGON DISPLAYED SIGNS EXPLAINING THE FLAG POLICY DURING THE FUEL CRISIS IN THE WINTER OF 1973-74. AS THE SIGN SAYS THE GREEN FLAG MEANS ANYONE CAN GET GAS, THE YELLOW IS FOR COMMERCIAL VEHICLES ONLY AND A RED FLAG MEANS NO GAS AT A...</p>
<hr />
<div>GASOLINE DEALERS IN OREGON DISPLAYED SIGNS EXPLAINING THE FLAG POLICY DURING THE FUEL CRISIS IN THE WINTER OF 1973-74. AS THE SIGN SAYS THE GREEN FLAG MEANS ANYONE CAN GET GAS, THE YELLOW IS FOR COMMERCIAL VEHICLES ONLY AND A RED FLAG MEANS NO GAS AT ALL.<br />
<br />
May 1974</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:Nixon-depart.png&diff=2069File:Nixon-depart.png2016-05-26T01:27:19Z<p>TheMayor: Richard Nixon boarding Army One upon his departure from the White House after resigning the office of President of the United States following the Watergate Scandal in 1974.</p>
<hr />
<div>Richard Nixon boarding Army One upon his departure from the White House after resigning the office of President of the United States following the Watergate Scandal in 1974.</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:Carter_Shah.jpeg&diff=2068File:Carter Shah.jpeg2016-05-26T01:25:21Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Why_did_the_United_States_and_Soviet_Union_Reach_Detente_During_the_Cold_War&diff=1974Why did the United States and Soviet Union Reach Detente During the Cold War2016-05-21T00:34:01Z<p>TheMayor: Created page with "Detente was a period lasting approximately from 1972 to 1981 in which there was a thaw in relations between the United States and the Soviet Union. It was punctuated by major..."</p>
<hr />
<div>Detente was a period lasting approximately from 1972 to 1981 in which there was a thaw in relations between the United States and the Soviet Union. It was punctuated by major and surprising events, including the end of American involvement in the Vietnam War, a large economic downturn in the West, and the opening of relations with China. This period proved to be starkly different than the escalations in Cold War tensions in the 1960s and 1980s and is generally credited as a major function of Richard Nixon's diplomacy.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The years leading up to the rapprochement between the United States and Soviet Union were often tense, to say the least. The 1950s saw a massive military buildup on both sides, with the number of deployable nuclear weapons reaching into the tens of thousands. Furthermore, the 1950s and 1960s saw other countries, including the U.K., France, and China each joining the nuclear club. The defining moment of this arms race was the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis that brought the superpowers to the brink of war.<br />
<br />
(n addition, the two sides were locked in a series of crises and wars across the globe. The Soviet Union began construction on the infamous Berlin Wall in 1961 to prevent people from leaving East Berlin. There were successive crises over Taiwan and the straits. The largest of these issues was certainly the Vietnam War. Although the United States had been sending advisers to anti-Communist South Vietnam since France left its former colony in the 1950s, the involvement massively escalated in the mid-1960s. The U.S. utilized drafted soldiers, causing tremendous resentment on the home front. Furthermore, the South Vietnamese regime was unstable, facing several coups and general unpopularity. By 1968 there were already over 600,000 combat troops in the country, representing the peak of American intervention.<br />
<br />
==Major Political Changes==<br />
<br />
There were a series of important shifts in the United States, China, and Soviet Union that allowed for policy to change. In the Soviet Union Premier Nikita Khrushchev was replaced by party hardliner Leonid Brezhnev. There was also increasing tension between the U.S.S.R. and People's Republic of China, which resulted in a brief border conflict in 1969. China's Great Leap Forward, intended to modernize and industrialize the country, had failed terribly, and dictator Mao Zedong sought alternatives to Soviet hegemony. The United States saw a prolonged period of instability initiated by the assassination of President John Kennedy in November 1963. Protests against involvement in Vietnam and a series of social issues continued to grow. By 1968 President Lyndon Johnson was broken in spirit and decided not to run for re-election. <ref>Gaddis, John Lewis, ''The Cold War: a New History.''' New York: Penguin Books, 2006. Pages 79-80.</ref><br />
<br />
It was in this atmosphere that former Vice President Richard Nixon reemerged. Having served under President Eisenhower from 1953-1961 Nixon ran unsuccessfully for the White House against Kennedy in 1960. Nixon also launched a failed bid for California governor in 1964 and declared that his political life was over. Nixon had developed a contentious but respectful role with Soviet leaders, even flying to Moscow for a debate with Khrushchev on the strengths of a capitalist system, dubbed the "Kitchen Debate" in 1959. Nixon's return in 1968 was built on the twin ideas that he would be tough on Communism and crack down on instability through his 'law and order' platform.<br />
<br />
==Start of a Thaw==<br />
<br />
Nixon's ascension brought competing ideas to light. In one regard, he was a Cold Warrior, launching a large escalation of bombing in Vietnam (and later Cambodia and Laos) while also dramatically reducing the number of combat troops in Southeast Asia. Nixon also ended the draft, undercutting a major argument of American doves. As both Brezhnev and Nixon were looked upon as hardliners, it appeared that a thaw might not be possible. The year before Nixon took office, Brezhnev launched a bloody repression of an uprising in Czechoslovakia.<br />
<br />
[[File:Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The SALT II Treaty signed in 1979.]] <br />
<br />
The United States also saw the emerging Sino-Soviet split. Mao bitterly resented Khrushchev's de-Stalinization and the Soviets feared China joining the nuclear club. China was growing increasingly uneasy with the Soviets' role in Vietnam, disliking the idea of a Soviet client state on their southern border. With this backdrop, Nixon began negotiations with Soviet Premier Brezhnev in 1969 on a series of bilateral arms reduction treaties. The first was the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, or SALT, which limited the number of nuclear warheads on each side. The following year the two superpowers agreed to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, or ABM, which limited the number of anti-ICBM defenses each nation would develop. This thaw grew into a wider policy, known as Detente between East and West. One of the largest and most symbolic acts was the agreement between many capitalist and Communist nations to sign the Helsinki Accords in 1975 in an effort to further improve relations. A follow up SALT II Treaty was signed by Brezhnev and Carter in 1979. <ref>Hanhimaki, Jussi, ''The Rise and Fall of Detente.'' Washington: Potomac Books, 2013. Page 83.</ref><br />
<br />
==Opening Relations with China==<br />
<br />
The emergence of China on the geopolitical scene almost created a tri-polar world. China by the end of the 1960s did not fall in the Soviet camp and Mao believed that the U.S.S.R. was adulterating Communist ideology. The U.S. refused to recognize the People's Republic since its victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Chinese involvement against United Nations forces in the Korean War also deepened mistrust. However, this changed by the early 1970s. The two countries exchanged friendly ping-pong athletes for exhibition games, which evolved into deeper and deeper talks. Nixon had fostered such talks since his first term began in 1969 but by 1971 National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger traveled secretly to Beijing to begin talks of a deeper thaw. <ref>DeVoss, David, "Ping-Pong Diplomacy." Washington: Smithsonian Magazine, April 2002.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Mao_Nixon.jpeg|thumbnail|300px|Nixon's famous visit to Beijing in February 1972.]]<br />
<br />
In July 1971 Nixon shocked audiences in both the United States and Soviet Union by announcing that he was visiting China. In February 1972 he made the journey and had a cordial meeting with Mao. The United States also recognized China, allowing the PRC to take Taiwan's seat at the United Nations. Shortly thereafter full diplomatic and commercial ties were established. Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Carter attempted to use this as leverage to smooth relations further. Under the guise of improved relations and further local diplomacy, the United States removed combat troops from Vietnam in 1973. <br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
[[File:SovietInvasionAfghanistanMap.png|200px|thumb|left|The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 was a major factor in ending Detente.]] <br />
<br />
The better relations between the United States with China and the Soviet Union was not a permanent development. As the United States and her allies fell into a deep "malaise" in the late 1970s the Soviets attempted to take advantage of the situation. The Soviets expanded their influence in the Middle East and invaded Afghanistan to prop up a puppet government in 1979. Brezhnev also kept Eastern Europe repressed with a heavy hand through the remainder of his dictatorship. It was in this backdrop that former California Governor Ronald Reagan ran and won for President in 1980, promising to end the Detente.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]][[Category:Military History]][[Category:Cold War History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
<br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:SovietInvasionAfghanistanMap.png&diff=1971File:SovietInvasionAfghanistanMap.png2016-05-20T20:42:06Z<p>TheMayor: The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979</p>
<hr />
<div>The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg&diff=1970File:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg2016-05-20T20:37:50Z<p>TheMayor: Description: English: President Jimmy Carter and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev sign the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) treaty, June 18, 1979, in Vienna.
Date: 18 June 1979
Source: Original Uploaded by Thames to EN
Author: Photo...</p>
<hr />
<div>Description: English: President Jimmy Carter and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev sign the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) treaty, June 18, 1979, in Vienna.<br />
<br />
Date: 18 June 1979<br />
<br />
Source: Original Uploaded by Thames to EN<br />
<br />
Author: Photo Credit: Bill Fitz-Patrick</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:Mao_Nixon.jpeg&diff=1968File:Mao Nixon.jpeg2016-05-20T18:58:41Z<p>TheMayor: Record creator: General Services Administration. National Archives and Records Service. Office of Presidential Libraries. Office of Presidential Papers. (01/20/1969 - ca. 12/1974) (Most Recent)
President (1969-1974 : Nixon). White House Photo Office. (...</p>
<hr />
<div>Record creator: General Services Administration. National Archives and Records Service. Office of Presidential Libraries. Office of Presidential Papers. (01/20/1969 - ca. 12/1974) (Most Recent)<br />
President (1969-1974 : Nixon). White House Photo Office. (1969 - 1974) (Most Recent)<br />
Title: President Nixon meets with China's Communist Party Leader, Mao Ze-Dong, 02/29/1972<br />
Description: <br />
Scope and content: Pictured: Mao Tse-Tung, President Richard M. Nixon. Subject: Trip to China.</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_World_War_II_Lead_to_the_Cold_War%3F&diff=1901How did World War II Lead to the Cold War?2016-05-19T02:30:58Z<p>TheMayor: /* American Goals */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Cold War (1945-1991) represented a series of localized conflicts and intense diplomatic rivalries between camps led by the capitalist United States and Communist Soviet Union. This era also saw a massive increase in civilian and military technology, including thousands of nuclear weapons and the means to deliver them across the planet.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
This era was largely an outgrowth of the previous decades, with a special focus on the roles the United States and Soviet Union played in the Second World War. As Europe and Asia prepared for a long rebuilding process both sides offered their own visions for a postwar reality and security.<br />
<br />
==Soviet Mistrust==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union under dictator Josef Stalin had several overarching goals and fears in the waning days of the Second World War. Stalin kept in mind the devastation that Russia faced in successive crises including the First World War and Russian Civil War. Stalin had particular distrust for the Western Allies due to intervention by these powers against the Reds in the Russian Civil War and for abandoning Czechoslovakia before the war began. These are among the factors that pushed Stalin into signing a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany in 1941. Now facing betrayal by Hitler, massive destruction, and about 20 million military and civilian deaths, the Soviet Union was in a unique position. Soviet Red Army troops now occupied almost half of Europe and was the largest military force in the world. <ref>Hopf, Ted, ''Reconstructing the Cold War.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Page 45-48. </ref><br />
<br />
As Soviet troops displaced German ones Stalin promised free and fair elections across Eastern Europe. In some places, exiled government returned and limited elections were held. However, many of these governments were forced into coalition governments with Communist-led Popular Fronts. Within several years these Popular Fronts seized power in every country occupied by Soviet troops and installed regimes loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
==The Question of Germany==<br />
<br />
Germany had invaded Russia twice in less than thirty years, causing millions of deaths. Furthermore, Germany was largely destroyed by the current war, with nearly twelve million killed in the conflict. Ethnic Germans were expulsed from various regions of Eastern Europe, especially in Poland and Czechoslovakia, two regimes soon to be loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
[[File:BerlinAirlift.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|During the airlift in 1949]]<br />
<br />
Stalin's terms were harsh. The Soviets controlled the largest of the four Allied Occupation Zones, including half of Berlin and all of its environs. Stalin was not opposed to a unified Germany, but one that was completely deindustrialized and demilitarized. The United States and United Kingdom sought instead to reintegrate Germany into the world community unlike after 1918 but also to have it serve as a bulwark against the spread of Communism. The two sides were at an impasse, leading Stalin to ratchet up pressure. In 1948 the Soviet Union blocked land routes to East Berlin, testing President Truman. Truman responded by organizing the Berlin Airlift. The effort led by the U.S. and U.K. was the largest such effort in history until that point, delivering over 200,000 flights to feed the civilians of Berlin. Stalin's gamble had failed and by 1949 ended the blockade. Distrust between the two sides continued as each zone of occupation solidified around their occupying forces. By 1949, the three Western Allied zones combined to form the Communist-dominated German Democratic Republic and Western-backed German Federal Republic. <ref>Harrington, Daniel, ''Berlin on the Brink: The Blockade, the Airlift, and the Early Cold War.'' Lexington Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2012. Page 77.</ref><br />
<br />
==American Goals==<br />
<br />
The United States had not intended to become involved in the conflict in 1939. The 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor led to massive American involvement in both the Atlantic and Pacific Wars. Propping up the Western Allies, U.S.-led troops occupied most of Western Europe, Greece, and much of Asia. President Roosevelt and his successor Harry Truman were led by a combination of democratic idealism with the harsh reality of the failures of the Treaty of Versailles. Seeking to learn from the mistakes from the end of World War I and the interwar era, the U.S. served as a stabilizing force against post-war chaos and Soviet expansionism. <br />
<br />
[[File:Marshall Plan poster.JPG|thumb|200px|Marshall Plan poster]]<br />
<br />
The United States propped up a number of democratic capitalist states in Europe. The Americans also pressed for free and fair elections across the Soviet occupied zones but with the understanding that this may not be realistic. American intelligence services heavily leaned on elections held in Europe, especially in Italy and France to avoid a Communist Party victory. The United States also introduced the Marshall Plan, a massive rebuilding project across Europe starting in 1948. This plan offered funding, equipment, and technical assistance across Europe, including for former Axis states, Allied states, neutral countries, and the U.S.S.R. and its satellites. Stalin rejected this aid, and forced the Eastern European states to do the same. By the time the program wound down in 1951, the U.S. gave $13 billion in many forms of assistance. The Marshall Plan effectively restarted the European economy, allowing industrial and agricultural production to surpass prewar levels and beyond. This laid the foundation for a massive boom, including the future German “economic miracle.” <ref>Kindleberger, Charles, ''Marshall Plan Days.'' New York: Routledge, 1987. Page 66.</ref><br />
<br />
==First Signs of Conflict==<br />
<br />
The differing zones of occupation and goals invariably led to the first conflicts of the Cold War. Greece was engulfed by a civil war between pro-Western and Communist factions. The Soviets also threatened Turkey over the rights to the important Black Sea straits. It was due to this situation that President Truman announced the Truman Doctrine in 1947. The United States offered substantial military assistance to both nations to prevent an expansion of Soviet influence. With this aid, coupled with economic help, communism did not spread in either country. The two sides solidified into alliances: the Warsaw Pact dominated by the Soviets and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization led by the U.S. <ref>Caldwell, Curt, ''NSC 68 and the Political Economy of the Early Cold War.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 211-215.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Warsaw_Pact_and_NATO.png|200px|thumb|left|The Warsaw Pact and NATO in the Cold War]]<br />
<br />
There were similar seeds of conflict in East Asia. Soviet troops occupied much of China and Korea. Local communist forces had stayed in place in much of Vietnam. While the Nationalist faction in China was friendly with both the U.S.S.R. and U.S., the Communist Party of China won a series of victories against the Nationalists in the re-emerging Chinese Civil War. By 1948 the Communists had effectively won the conflict, confining the Nationalist Republic of China to Taiwan. Furthermore, the Soviet forces in Korea established a client state in the northern half, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. In 1950 as American forces largely left Korea, the North invaded the South.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Proxy conflicts and espionage erupted around the globe during the Cold War. The early posturing and saber rattling proved to be a template for future action by the Soviet Union, the United States, and their allies. As the conflict continued many of the first sites of tension erupted into wide ranging diplomatic and military conflict.<br />
<br />
==Works cited==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
<br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:Marshall_Plan_poster.JPG&diff=1899File:Marshall Plan poster.JPG2016-05-19T02:29:26Z<p>TheMayor: From Wikimedia Commons:
One of a number of posters created by the Economic Cooperation Administration, an agency of the U.S. government, to sell the Marshall Plan in Europe. Includes versions of the flags of those Western European countries that recei...</p>
<hr />
<div>From Wikimedia Commons:<br />
<br />
One of a number of posters created by the Economic Cooperation Administration, an agency of the U.S. government, to sell the Marshall Plan in Europe. Includes versions of the flags of those Western European countries that received aid under the Marshall Plan (clockwise from top: Portugal, Norway, Belgium, Iceland, West Germany, the Free Territory of Trieste (erroneously with a blue background instead of red), Italy, Denmark, Austria, the Netherlands, Ireland, Sweden, Turkey, Greece, France and the United Kingdom). Poster does not explicitly depict Luxembourg (whose flag is very similar to the Dutch flag), which did receive some aid.<br />
Date 1950<br />
Source http://library.marshallfoundation.org/posters/library/posters/poster_full.php?poster=1011<br />
Author E. Spreckmeester (also credited as "I. Spreekmeester"), published Economic Cooperation Administration</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_World_War_II_Lead_to_the_Cold_War%3F&diff=1898How did World War II Lead to the Cold War?2016-05-19T02:28:12Z<p>TheMayor: /* The Question of Germany */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Cold War (1945-1991) represented a series of localized conflicts and intense diplomatic rivalries between camps led by the capitalist United States and Communist Soviet Union. This era also saw a massive increase in civilian and military technology, including thousands of nuclear weapons and the means to deliver them across the planet.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
This era was largely an outgrowth of the previous decades, with a special focus on the roles the United States and Soviet Union played in the Second World War. As Europe and Asia prepared for a long rebuilding process both sides offered their own visions for a postwar reality and security.<br />
<br />
==Soviet Mistrust==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union under dictator Josef Stalin had several overarching goals and fears in the waning days of the Second World War. Stalin kept in mind the devastation that Russia faced in successive crises including the First World War and Russian Civil War. Stalin had particular distrust for the Western Allies due to intervention by these powers against the Reds in the Russian Civil War and for abandoning Czechoslovakia before the war began. These are among the factors that pushed Stalin into signing a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany in 1941. Now facing betrayal by Hitler, massive destruction, and about 20 million military and civilian deaths, the Soviet Union was in a unique position. Soviet Red Army troops now occupied almost half of Europe and was the largest military force in the world. <ref>Hopf, Ted, ''Reconstructing the Cold War.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Page 45-48. </ref><br />
<br />
As Soviet troops displaced German ones Stalin promised free and fair elections across Eastern Europe. In some places, exiled government returned and limited elections were held. However, many of these governments were forced into coalition governments with Communist-led Popular Fronts. Within several years these Popular Fronts seized power in every country occupied by Soviet troops and installed regimes loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
==The Question of Germany==<br />
<br />
Germany had invaded Russia twice in less than thirty years, causing millions of deaths. Furthermore, Germany was largely destroyed by the current war, with nearly twelve million killed in the conflict. Ethnic Germans were expulsed from various regions of Eastern Europe, especially in Poland and Czechoslovakia, two regimes soon to be loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
[[File:BerlinAirlift.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|During the airlift in 1949]]<br />
<br />
Stalin's terms were harsh. The Soviets controlled the largest of the four Allied Occupation Zones, including half of Berlin and all of its environs. Stalin was not opposed to a unified Germany, but one that was completely deindustrialized and demilitarized. The United States and United Kingdom sought instead to reintegrate Germany into the world community unlike after 1918 but also to have it serve as a bulwark against the spread of Communism. The two sides were at an impasse, leading Stalin to ratchet up pressure. In 1948 the Soviet Union blocked land routes to East Berlin, testing President Truman. Truman responded by organizing the Berlin Airlift. The effort led by the U.S. and U.K. was the largest such effort in history until that point, delivering over 200,000 flights to feed the civilians of Berlin. Stalin's gamble had failed and by 1949 ended the blockade. Distrust between the two sides continued as each zone of occupation solidified around their occupying forces. By 1949, the three Western Allied zones combined to form the Communist-dominated German Democratic Republic and Western-backed German Federal Republic. <ref>Harrington, Daniel, ''Berlin on the Brink: The Blockade, the Airlift, and the Early Cold War.'' Lexington Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2012. Page 77.</ref><br />
<br />
==American Goals==<br />
<br />
The United States had not intended to become involved in the conflict in 1939. The 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor led to massive American involvement in both the Atlantic and Pacific Wars. Propping up the Western Allies, U.S.-led troops occupied most of Western Europe, Greece, and much of Asia. President Roosevelt and his successor Harry Truman were led by a combination of democratic idealism with the harsh reality of the failures of the Treaty of Versailles. Seeking to learn from the mistakes from the end of World War I and the interwar era, the U.S. served as a stabilizing force against post-war chaos and Soviet expansionism. <br />
<br />
[[File:Marshall Plan poster.JPG|thumb|Marshall Plan poster]]<br />
<br />
The United States propped up a number of democratic capitalist states in Europe. The Americans also pressed for free and fair elections across the Soviet occupied zones but with the understanding that this may not be realistic. American intelligence services heavily leaned on elections held in Europe, especially in Italy and France to avoid a Communist Party victory. The United States also introduced the Marshall Plan, a massive rebuilding project across Europe starting in 1948. This plan offered funding, equipment, and technical assistance across Europe, including for former Axis states, Allied states, neutral countries, and the U.S.S.R. and its satellites. Stalin rejected this aid, and forced the Eastern European states to do the same. By the time the program wound down in 1951, the U.S. gave $13 billion in many forms of assistance. The Marshall Plan effectively restarted the European economy, allowing industrial and agricultural production to surpass prewar levels and beyond. This laid the foundation for a massive boom, including the future German “economic miracle.” <ref>Kindleberger, Charles, ''Marshall Plan Days.'' New York: Routledge, 1987. Page 66.</ref><br />
<br />
==First Signs of Conflict==<br />
<br />
The differing zones of occupation and goals invariably led to the first conflicts of the Cold War. Greece was engulfed by a civil war between pro-Western and Communist factions. The Soviets also threatened Turkey over the rights to the important Black Sea straits. It was due to this situation that President Truman announced the Truman Doctrine in 1947. The United States offered substantial military assistance to both nations to prevent an expansion of Soviet influence. With this aid, coupled with economic help, communism did not spread in either country. The two sides solidified into alliances: the Warsaw Pact dominated by the Soviets and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization led by the U.S. <ref>Caldwell, Curt, ''NSC 68 and the Political Economy of the Early Cold War.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 211-215.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Warsaw_Pact_and_NATO.png|200px|thumb|left|The Warsaw Pact and NATO in the Cold War]]<br />
<br />
There were similar seeds of conflict in East Asia. Soviet troops occupied much of China and Korea. Local communist forces had stayed in place in much of Vietnam. While the Nationalist faction in China was friendly with both the U.S.S.R. and U.S., the Communist Party of China won a series of victories against the Nationalists in the re-emerging Chinese Civil War. By 1948 the Communists had effectively won the conflict, confining the Nationalist Republic of China to Taiwan. Furthermore, the Soviet forces in Korea established a client state in the northern half, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. In 1950 as American forces largely left Korea, the North invaded the South.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Proxy conflicts and espionage erupted around the globe during the Cold War. The early posturing and saber rattling proved to be a template for future action by the Soviet Union, the United States, and their allies. As the conflict continued many of the first sites of tension erupted into wide ranging diplomatic and military conflict.<br />
<br />
==Works cited==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
<br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:BerlinAirlift.jpeg&diff=1897File:BerlinAirlift.jpeg2016-05-19T02:27:57Z<p>TheMayor: From Wikimedia Commons:
Description
C-54s stand out against the snow at Wiesbaden Air Base during the Berlin Airlift in March 1949. U.S. Army photo
Date March 1949
Source http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=50294, http://www.defense.gov/...</p>
<hr />
<div>From Wikimedia Commons: <br />
<br />
Description <br />
C-54s stand out against the snow at Wiesbaden Air Base during the Berlin Airlift in March 1949. U.S. Army photo<br />
Date March 1949<br />
Source http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=50294, http://www.defense.gov/DODCMSShare/NewsStoryPhoto/2008-06/hrs_080624-Wiesbaden1949.jpg<br />
Author unknown, U.S. Army photo</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:Warsaw_Pact_and_NATO.png&diff=1895File:Warsaw Pact and NATO.png2016-05-19T02:25:23Z<p>TheMayor: Map of the opposing sides of the Cold War</p>
<hr />
<div>Map of the opposing sides of the Cold War</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_World_War_II_Lead_to_the_Cold_War%3F&diff=1892How did World War II Lead to the Cold War?2016-05-19T02:23:47Z<p>TheMayor: /* First Signs of Conflict */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Cold War (1945-1991) represented a series of localized conflicts and intense diplomatic rivalries between camps led by the capitalist United States and Communist Soviet Union. This era also saw a massive increase in civilian and military technology, including thousands of nuclear weapons and the means to deliver them across the planet.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
This era was largely an outgrowth of the previous decades, with a special focus on the roles the United States and Soviet Union played in the Second World War. As Europe and Asia prepared for a long rebuilding process both sides offered their own visions for a postwar reality and security.<br />
<br />
==Soviet Mistrust==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union under dictator Josef Stalin had several overarching goals and fears in the waning days of the Second World War. Stalin kept in mind the devastation that Russia faced in successive crises including the First World War and Russian Civil War. Stalin had particular distrust for the Western Allies due to intervention by these powers against the Reds in the Russian Civil War and for abandoning Czechoslovakia before the war began. These are among the factors that pushed Stalin into signing a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany in 1941. Now facing betrayal by Hitler, massive destruction, and about 20 million military and civilian deaths, the Soviet Union was in a unique position. Soviet Red Army troops now occupied almost half of Europe and was the largest military force in the world. <ref>Hopf, Ted, ''Reconstructing the Cold War.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Page 45-48. </ref><br />
<br />
As Soviet troops displaced German ones Stalin promised free and fair elections across Eastern Europe. In some places, exiled government returned and limited elections were held. However, many of these governments were forced into coalition governments with Communist-led Popular Fronts. Within several years these Popular Fronts seized power in every country occupied by Soviet troops and installed regimes loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
==The Question of Germany==<br />
<br />
Germany had invaded Russia twice in less than thirty years, causing millions of deaths. Furthermore, Germany was largely destroyed by the current war, with nearly twelve million killed in the conflict. Ethnic Germans were expulsed from various regions of Eastern Europe, especially in Poland and Czechoslovakia, two regimes soon to be loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
[[File:Wiesbaden Air Base during Berlin Airlift 1949.jpg|thumb|During the Berlin Airlift]]<br />
<br />
Stalin's terms were harsh. The Soviets controlled the largest of the four Allied Occupation Zones, including half of Berlin and all of its environs. Stalin was not opposed to a unified Germany, but one that was completely deindustrialized and demilitarized. The United States and United Kingdom sought instead to reintegrate Germany into the world community unlike after 1918 but also to have it serve as a bulwark against the spread of Communism. The two sides were at an impasse, leading Stalin to ratchet up pressure. In 1948 the Soviet Union blocked land routes to East Berlin, testing President Truman. Truman responded by organizing the Berlin Airlift. The effort led by the U.S. and U.K. was the largest such effort in history until that point, delivering over 200,000 flights to feed the civilians of Berlin. Stalin's gamble had failed and by 1949 ended the blockade. Distrust between the two sides continued as each zone of occupation solidified around their occupying forces. By 1949, the three Western Allied zones combined to form the Communist-dominated German Democratic Republic and Western-backed German Federal Republic. <ref>Harrington, Daniel, ''Berlin on the Brink: The Blockade, the Airlift, and the Early Cold War.'' Lexington Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2012. Page 77.</ref><br />
<br />
==American Goals==<br />
<br />
The United States had not intended to become involved in the conflict in 1939. The 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor led to massive American involvement in both the Atlantic and Pacific Wars. Propping up the Western Allies, U.S.-led troops occupied most of Western Europe, Greece, and much of Asia. President Roosevelt and his successor Harry Truman were led by a combination of democratic idealism with the harsh reality of the failures of the Treaty of Versailles. Seeking to learn from the mistakes from the end of World War I and the interwar era, the U.S. served as a stabilizing force against post-war chaos and Soviet expansionism. <br />
<br />
[[File:Marshall Plan poster.JPG|thumb|Marshall Plan poster]]<br />
<br />
The United States propped up a number of democratic capitalist states in Europe. The Americans also pressed for free and fair elections across the Soviet occupied zones but with the understanding that this may not be realistic. American intelligence services heavily leaned on elections held in Europe, especially in Italy and France to avoid a Communist Party victory. The United States also introduced the Marshall Plan, a massive rebuilding project across Europe starting in 1948. This plan offered funding, equipment, and technical assistance across Europe, including for former Axis states, Allied states, neutral countries, and the U.S.S.R. and its satellites. Stalin rejected this aid, and forced the Eastern European states to do the same. By the time the program wound down in 1951, the U.S. gave $13 billion in many forms of assistance. The Marshall Plan effectively restarted the European economy, allowing industrial and agricultural production to surpass prewar levels and beyond. This laid the foundation for a massive boom, including the future German “economic miracle.” <ref>Kindleberger, Charles, ''Marshall Plan Days.'' New York: Routledge, 1987. Page 66.</ref><br />
<br />
==First Signs of Conflict==<br />
<br />
The differing zones of occupation and goals invariably led to the first conflicts of the Cold War. Greece was engulfed by a civil war between pro-Western and Communist factions. The Soviets also threatened Turkey over the rights to the important Black Sea straits. It was due to this situation that President Truman announced the Truman Doctrine in 1947. The United States offered substantial military assistance to both nations to prevent an expansion of Soviet influence. With this aid, coupled with economic help, communism did not spread in either country. The two sides solidified into alliances: the Warsaw Pact dominated by the Soviets and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization led by the U.S. <ref>Caldwell, Curt, ''NSC 68 and the Political Economy of the Early Cold War.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 211-215.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Warsaw_Pact_and_NATO.png|200px|thumb|left|The Warsaw Pact and NATO in the Cold War]]<br />
<br />
There were similar seeds of conflict in East Asia. Soviet troops occupied much of China and Korea. Local communist forces had stayed in place in much of Vietnam. While the Nationalist faction in China was friendly with both the U.S.S.R. and U.S., the Communist Party of China won a series of victories against the Nationalists in the re-emerging Chinese Civil War. By 1948 the Communists had effectively won the conflict, confining the Nationalist Republic of China to Taiwan. Furthermore, the Soviet forces in Korea established a client state in the northern half, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. In 1950 as American forces largely left Korea, the North invaded the South.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Proxy conflicts and espionage erupted around the globe during the Cold War. The early posturing and saber rattling proved to be a template for future action by the Soviet Union, the United States, and their allies. As the conflict continued many of the first sites of tension erupted into wide ranging diplomatic and military conflict.<br />
<br />
==Works cited==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
<br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_World_War_II_Lead_to_the_Cold_War%3F&diff=1891How did World War II Lead to the Cold War?2016-05-19T02:20:19Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>The Cold War (1945-1991) represented a series of localized conflicts and intense diplomatic rivalries between camps led by the capitalist United States and Communist Soviet Union. This era also saw a massive increase in civilian and military technology, including thousands of nuclear weapons and the means to deliver them across the planet.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
This era was largely an outgrowth of the previous decades, with a special focus on the roles the United States and Soviet Union played in the Second World War. As Europe and Asia prepared for a long rebuilding process both sides offered their own visions for a postwar reality and security.<br />
<br />
==Soviet Mistrust==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union under dictator Josef Stalin had several overarching goals and fears in the waning days of the Second World War. Stalin kept in mind the devastation that Russia faced in successive crises including the First World War and Russian Civil War. Stalin had particular distrust for the Western Allies due to intervention by these powers against the Reds in the Russian Civil War and for abandoning Czechoslovakia before the war began. These are among the factors that pushed Stalin into signing a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany in 1941. Now facing betrayal by Hitler, massive destruction, and about 20 million military and civilian deaths, the Soviet Union was in a unique position. Soviet Red Army troops now occupied almost half of Europe and was the largest military force in the world. <ref>Hopf, Ted, ''Reconstructing the Cold War.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Page 45-48. </ref><br />
<br />
As Soviet troops displaced German ones Stalin promised free and fair elections across Eastern Europe. In some places, exiled government returned and limited elections were held. However, many of these governments were forced into coalition governments with Communist-led Popular Fronts. Within several years these Popular Fronts seized power in every country occupied by Soviet troops and installed regimes loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
==The Question of Germany==<br />
<br />
Germany had invaded Russia twice in less than thirty years, causing millions of deaths. Furthermore, Germany was largely destroyed by the current war, with nearly twelve million killed in the conflict. Ethnic Germans were expulsed from various regions of Eastern Europe, especially in Poland and Czechoslovakia, two regimes soon to be loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
[[File:Wiesbaden Air Base during Berlin Airlift 1949.jpg|thumb|During the Berlin Airlift]]<br />
<br />
Stalin's terms were harsh. The Soviets controlled the largest of the four Allied Occupation Zones, including half of Berlin and all of its environs. Stalin was not opposed to a unified Germany, but one that was completely deindustrialized and demilitarized. The United States and United Kingdom sought instead to reintegrate Germany into the world community unlike after 1918 but also to have it serve as a bulwark against the spread of Communism. The two sides were at an impasse, leading Stalin to ratchet up pressure. In 1948 the Soviet Union blocked land routes to East Berlin, testing President Truman. Truman responded by organizing the Berlin Airlift. The effort led by the U.S. and U.K. was the largest such effort in history until that point, delivering over 200,000 flights to feed the civilians of Berlin. Stalin's gamble had failed and by 1949 ended the blockade. Distrust between the two sides continued as each zone of occupation solidified around their occupying forces. By 1949, the three Western Allied zones combined to form the Communist-dominated German Democratic Republic and Western-backed German Federal Republic. <ref>Harrington, Daniel, ''Berlin on the Brink: The Blockade, the Airlift, and the Early Cold War.'' Lexington Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2012. Page 77.</ref><br />
<br />
==American Goals==<br />
<br />
The United States had not intended to become involved in the conflict in 1939. The 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor led to massive American involvement in both the Atlantic and Pacific Wars. Propping up the Western Allies, U.S.-led troops occupied most of Western Europe, Greece, and much of Asia. President Roosevelt and his successor Harry Truman were led by a combination of democratic idealism with the harsh reality of the failures of the Treaty of Versailles. Seeking to learn from the mistakes from the end of World War I and the interwar era, the U.S. served as a stabilizing force against post-war chaos and Soviet expansionism. <br />
<br />
[[File:Marshall Plan poster.JPG|thumb|Marshall Plan poster]]<br />
<br />
The United States propped up a number of democratic capitalist states in Europe. The Americans also pressed for free and fair elections across the Soviet occupied zones but with the understanding that this may not be realistic. American intelligence services heavily leaned on elections held in Europe, especially in Italy and France to avoid a Communist Party victory. The United States also introduced the Marshall Plan, a massive rebuilding project across Europe starting in 1948. This plan offered funding, equipment, and technical assistance across Europe, including for former Axis states, Allied states, neutral countries, and the U.S.S.R. and its satellites. Stalin rejected this aid, and forced the Eastern European states to do the same. By the time the program wound down in 1951, the U.S. gave $13 billion in many forms of assistance. The Marshall Plan effectively restarted the European economy, allowing industrial and agricultural production to surpass prewar levels and beyond. This laid the foundation for a massive boom, including the future German “economic miracle.” <ref>Kindleberger, Charles, ''Marshall Plan Days.'' New York: Routledge, 1987. Page 66.</ref><br />
<br />
==First Signs of Conflict==<br />
<br />
The differing zones of occupation and goals invariably led to the first conflicts of the Cold War. Greece was engulfed by a civil war between pro-Western and Communist factions. The Soviets also threatened Turkey over the rights to the important Black Sea straits. It was due to this situation that President Truman announced the Truman Doctrine in 1947. The United States offered substantial military assistance to both nations to prevent an expansion of Soviet influence. With this aid, coupled with economic help, communism did not spread in either country. The two sides solidified into alliances: the Warsaw Pact dominated by the Soviets and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization led by the U.S. <ref>Caldwell, Curt, ''NSC 68 and the Political Economy of the Early Cold War.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 211-215.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Location NATO Warsaw Pakt.svg|thumb|Opposing alliance during the Cold War]]<br />
<br />
There were similar seeds of conflict in East Asia. Soviet troops occupied much of China and Korea. Local communist forces had stayed in place in much of Vietnam. While the Nationalist faction in China was friendly with both the U.S.S.R. and U.S., the Communist Party of China won a series of victories against the Nationalists in the re-emerging Chinese Civil War. By 1948 the Communists had effectively won the conflict, confining the Nationalist Republic of China to Taiwan. Furthermore, the Soviet forces in Korea established a client state in the northern half, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. In 1950 as American forces largely left Korea, the North invaded the South.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Proxy conflicts and espionage erupted around the globe during the Cold War. The early posturing and saber rattling proved to be a template for future action by the Soviet Union, the United States, and their allies. As the conflict continued many of the first sites of tension erupted into wide ranging diplomatic and military conflict.<br />
<br />
==Works cited==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
<br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_World_War_II_Lead_to_the_Cold_War%3F&diff=1889How did World War II Lead to the Cold War?2016-05-19T02:19:39Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The Cold War (1945-1991) represented a series of localized conflicts and intense diplomatic rivalries between camps led by the capitalist United States and Communist Soviet Union. This era also saw a massive increase in civilian and military technology, including thousands of nuclear weapons and the means to deliver them across the planet.<br />
<br />
This era was largely an outgrowth of the previous decades, with a special focus on the roles the United States and Soviet Union played in the Second World War. As Europe and Asia prepared for a long rebuilding process both sides offered their own visions for a postwar reality and security.<br />
<br />
==Soviet Mistrust==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union under dictator Josef Stalin had several overarching goals and fears in the waning days of the Second World War. Stalin kept in mind the devastation that Russia faced in successive crises including the First World War and Russian Civil War. Stalin had particular distrust for the Western Allies due to intervention by these powers against the Reds in the Russian Civil War and for abandoning Czechoslovakia before the war began. These are among the factors that pushed Stalin into signing a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany in 1941. Now facing betrayal by Hitler, massive destruction, and about 20 million military and civilian deaths, the Soviet Union was in a unique position. Soviet Red Army troops now occupied almost half of Europe and was the largest military force in the world. <ref>Hopf, Ted, ''Reconstructing the Cold War.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Page 45-48. </ref><br />
<br />
As Soviet troops displaced German ones Stalin promised free and fair elections across Eastern Europe. In some places, exiled government returned and limited elections were held. However, many of these governments were forced into coalition governments with Communist-led Popular Fronts. Within several years these Popular Fronts seized power in every country occupied by Soviet troops and installed regimes loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
==The Question of Germany==<br />
<br />
Germany had invaded Russia twice in less than thirty years, causing millions of deaths. Furthermore, Germany was largely destroyed by the current war, with nearly twelve million killed in the conflict. Ethnic Germans were expulsed from various regions of Eastern Europe, especially in Poland and Czechoslovakia, two regimes soon to be loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
[[File:Wiesbaden Air Base during Berlin Airlift 1949.jpg|thumb|During the Berlin Airlift]]<br />
<br />
Stalin's terms were harsh. The Soviets controlled the largest of the four Allied Occupation Zones, including half of Berlin and all of its environs. Stalin was not opposed to a unified Germany, but one that was completely deindustrialized and demilitarized. The United States and United Kingdom sought instead to reintegrate Germany into the world community unlike after 1918 but also to have it serve as a bulwark against the spread of Communism. The two sides were at an impasse, leading Stalin to ratchet up pressure. In 1948 the Soviet Union blocked land routes to East Berlin, testing President Truman. Truman responded by organizing the Berlin Airlift. The effort led by the U.S. and U.K. was the largest such effort in history until that point, delivering over 200,000 flights to feed the civilians of Berlin. Stalin's gamble had failed and by 1949 ended the blockade. Distrust between the two sides continued as each zone of occupation solidified around their occupying forces. By 1949, the three Western Allied zones combined to form the Communist-dominated German Democratic Republic and Western-backed German Federal Republic. <ref>Harrington, Daniel, ''Berlin on the Brink: The Blockade, the Airlift, and the Early Cold War.'' Lexington Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2012. Page 77.</ref><br />
<br />
==American Goals==<br />
<br />
The United States had not intended to become involved in the conflict in 1939. The 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor led to massive American involvement in both the Atlantic and Pacific Wars. Propping up the Western Allies, U.S.-led troops occupied most of Western Europe, Greece, and much of Asia. President Roosevelt and his successor Harry Truman were led by a combination of democratic idealism with the harsh reality of the failures of the Treaty of Versailles. Seeking to learn from the mistakes from the end of World War I and the interwar era, the U.S. served as a stabilizing force against post-war chaos and Soviet expansionism. <br />
<br />
[[File:Marshall Plan poster.JPG|thumb|Marshall Plan poster]]<br />
<br />
The United States propped up a number of democratic capitalist states in Europe. The Americans also pressed for free and fair elections across the Soviet occupied zones but with the understanding that this may not be realistic. American intelligence services heavily leaned on elections held in Europe, especially in Italy and France to avoid a Communist Party victory. The United States also introduced the Marshall Plan, a massive rebuilding project across Europe starting in 1948. This plan offered funding, equipment, and technical assistance across Europe, including for former Axis states, Allied states, neutral countries, and the U.S.S.R. and its satellites. Stalin rejected this aid, and forced the Eastern European states to do the same. By the time the program wound down in 1951, the U.S. gave $13 billion in many forms of assistance. The Marshall Plan effectively restarted the European economy, allowing industrial and agricultural production to surpass prewar levels and beyond. This laid the foundation for a massive boom, including the future German “economic miracle.” <ref>Kindleberger, Charles, ''Marshall Plan Days.'' New York: Routledge, 1987. Page 66.</ref><br />
<br />
==First Signs of Conflict==<br />
<br />
The differing zones of occupation and goals invariably led to the first conflicts of the Cold War. Greece was engulfed by a civil war between pro-Western and Communist factions. The Soviets also threatened Turkey over the rights to the important Black Sea straits. It was due to this situation that President Truman announced the Truman Doctrine in 1947. The United States offered substantial military assistance to both nations to prevent an expansion of Soviet influence. With this aid, coupled with economic help, communism did not spread in either country. The two sides solidified into alliances: the Warsaw Pact dominated by the Soviets and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization led by the U.S. <ref>Caldwell, Curt, ''NSC 68 and the Political Economy of the Early Cold War.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 211-215.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Location NATO Warsaw Pakt.svg|thumb|Opposing alliance during the Cold War]]<br />
<br />
There were similar seeds of conflict in East Asia. Soviet troops occupied much of China and Korea. Local communist forces had stayed in place in much of Vietnam. While the Nationalist faction in China was friendly with both the U.S.S.R. and U.S., the Communist Party of China won a series of victories against the Nationalists in the re-emerging Chinese Civil War. By 1948 the Communists had effectively won the conflict, confining the Nationalist Republic of China to Taiwan. Furthermore, the Soviet forces in Korea established a client state in the northern half, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. In 1950 as American forces largely left Korea, the North invaded the South.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Proxy conflicts and espionage erupted around the globe during the Cold War. The early posturing and saber rattling proved to be a template for future action by the Soviet Union, the United States, and their allies. As the conflict continued many of the first sites of tension erupted into wide ranging diplomatic and military conflict.<br />
<br />
==Works cited==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
<br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_World_War_II_Lead_to_the_Cold_War%3F&diff=1887How did World War II Lead to the Cold War?2016-05-19T02:18:42Z<p>TheMayor: Created page with "How Did the End of World War II Affect the Start of the Cold War? ==Introduction== The Cold War (1945-1991) represented a series of localized conflicts and intense diplomati..."</p>
<hr />
<div>How Did the End of World War II Affect the Start of the Cold War?<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The Cold War (1945-1991) represented a series of localized conflicts and intense diplomatic rivalries between camps led by the capitalist United States and Communist Soviet Union. This era also saw a massive increase in civilian and military technology, including thousands of nuclear weapons and the means to deliver them across the planet.<br />
<br />
This era was largely an outgrowth of the previous decades, with a special focus on the roles the United States and Soviet Union played in the Second World War. As Europe and Asia prepared for a long rebuilding process both sides offered their own visions for a postwar reality and security.<br />
<br />
==Soviet Mistrust==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union under dictator Josef Stalin had several overarching goals and fears in the waning days of the Second World War. Stalin kept in mind the devastation that Russia faced in successive crises including the First World War and Russian Civil War. Stalin had particular distrust for the Western Allies due to intervention by these powers against the Reds in the Russian Civil War and for abandoning Czechoslovakia before the war began. These are among the factors that pushed Stalin into signing a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany in 1941. Now facing betrayal by Hitler, massive destruction, and about 20 million military and civilian deaths, the Soviet Union was in a unique position. Soviet Red Army troops now occupied almost half of Europe and was the largest military force in the world. <ref>Hopf, Ted, ''Reconstructing the Cold War.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Page 45-48. </ref><br />
<br />
As Soviet troops displaced German ones Stalin promised free and fair elections across Eastern Europe. In some places, exiled government returned and limited elections were held. However, many of these governments were forced into coalition governments with Communist-led Popular Fronts. Within several years these Popular Fronts seized power in every country occupied by Soviet troops and installed regimes loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
==The Question of Germany==<br />
<br />
Germany had invaded Russia twice in less than thirty years, causing millions of deaths. Furthermore, Germany was largely destroyed by the current war, with nearly twelve million killed in the conflict. Ethnic Germans were expulsed from various regions of Eastern Europe, especially in Poland and Czechoslovakia, two regimes soon to be loyal to Stalin. <br />
<br />
[[File:Wiesbaden Air Base during Berlin Airlift 1949.jpg|thumb|During the Berlin Airlift]]<br />
<br />
Stalin's terms were harsh. The Soviets controlled the largest of the four Allied Occupation Zones, including half of Berlin and all of its environs. Stalin was not opposed to a unified Germany, but one that was completely deindustrialized and demilitarized. The United States and United Kingdom sought instead to reintegrate Germany into the world community unlike after 1918 but also to have it serve as a bulwark against the spread of Communism. The two sides were at an impasse, leading Stalin to ratchet up pressure. In 1948 the Soviet Union blocked land routes to East Berlin, testing President Truman. Truman responded by organizing the Berlin Airlift. The effort led by the U.S. and U.K. was the largest such effort in history until that point, delivering over 200,000 flights to feed the civilians of Berlin. Stalin's gamble had failed and by 1949 ended the blockade. Distrust between the two sides continued as each zone of occupation solidified around their occupying forces. By 1949, the three Western Allied zones combined to form the Communist-dominated German Democratic Republic and Western-backed German Federal Republic. <ref>Harrington, Daniel, ''Berlin on the Brink: The Blockade, the Airlift, and the Early Cold War.'' Lexington Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2012. Page 77.</ref><br />
<br />
==American Goals==<br />
<br />
The United States had not intended to become involved in the conflict in 1939. The 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor led to massive American involvement in both the Atlantic and Pacific Wars. Propping up the Western Allies, U.S.-led troops occupied most of Western Europe, Greece, and much of Asia. President Roosevelt and his successor Harry Truman were led by a combination of democratic idealism with the harsh reality of the failures of the Treaty of Versailles. Seeking to learn from the mistakes from the end of World War I and the interwar era, the U.S. served as a stabilizing force against post-war chaos and Soviet expansionism. <br />
<br />
[[File:Marshall Plan poster.JPG|thumb|Marshall Plan poster]]<br />
<br />
The United States propped up a number of democratic capitalist states in Europe. The Americans also pressed for free and fair elections across the Soviet occupied zones but with the understanding that this may not be realistic. American intelligence services heavily leaned on elections held in Europe, especially in Italy and France to avoid a Communist Party victory. The United States also introduced the Marshall Plan, a massive rebuilding project across Europe starting in 1948. This plan offered funding, equipment, and technical assistance across Europe, including for former Axis states, Allied states, neutral countries, and the U.S.S.R. and its satellites. Stalin rejected this aid, and forced the Eastern European states to do the same. By the time the program wound down in 1951, the U.S. gave $13 billion in many forms of assistance. The Marshall Plan effectively restarted the European economy, allowing industrial and agricultural production to surpass prewar levels and beyond. This laid the foundation for a massive boom, including the future German “economic miracle.” <ref>Kindleberger, Charles, ''Marshall Plan Days.'' New York: Routledge, 1987. Page 66.</ref><br />
<br />
==First Signs of Conflict==<br />
<br />
The differing zones of occupation and goals invariably led to the first conflicts of the Cold War. Greece was engulfed by a civil war between pro-Western and Communist factions. The Soviets also threatened Turkey over the rights to the important Black Sea straits. It was due to this situation that President Truman announced the Truman Doctrine in 1947. The United States offered substantial military assistance to both nations to prevent an expansion of Soviet influence. With this aid, coupled with economic help, communism did not spread in either country. The two sides solidified into alliances: the Warsaw Pact dominated by the Soviets and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization led by the U.S. <ref>Caldwell, Curt, ''NSC 68 and the Political Economy of the Early Cold War.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 211-215.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Location NATO Warsaw Pakt.svg|thumb|Opposing alliance during the Cold War]]<br />
<br />
There were similar seeds of conflict in East Asia. Soviet troops occupied much of China and Korea. Local communist forces had stayed in place in much of Vietnam. While the Nationalist faction in China was friendly with both the U.S.S.R. and U.S., the Communist Party of China won a series of victories against the Nationalists in the re-emerging Chinese Civil War. By 1948 the Communists had effectively won the conflict, confining the Nationalist Republic of China to Taiwan. Furthermore, the Soviet forces in Korea established a client state in the northern half, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. In 1950 as American forces largely left Korea, the North invaded the South.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Proxy conflicts and espionage erupted around the globe during the Cold War. The early posturing and saber rattling proved to be a template for future action by the Soviet Union, the United States, and their allies. As the conflict continued many of the first sites of tension erupted into wide ranging diplomatic and military conflict.<br />
<br />
==Works cited==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
<br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=1883How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2016-05-19T02:12:00Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:LLoyd's_News_Placard_announcing_Versailles_signing.jpg|thumbnail|175px|Lloyd's News reporting the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.]]<br />
{{MediaWiki:Kindleoasis}}<br />
The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought tremendous uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
<br />
==Deliberations==<br />
[[File:Versailles_1919.jpg|thumbnail|250px|Georges Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson at the Formal Signing of the Treaty.]]<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
<br />
Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
<br />
==Shortfalls==<br />
<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
<br />
President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. ''The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
<br />
However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
<br />
==German Reaction==<br />
<br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
[[File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Mass Demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles at the Reichstag in 1919.]] <br />
Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
<br />
Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. ''The Versailles Settlement (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
<br />
Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist, or Nazi, party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_were_the_goals_of_the_Axis_powers_and_the_Soviet_Union_during_World_War_Two&diff=1881What were the goals of the Axis powers and the Soviet Union during World War Two2016-05-19T02:04:35Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
The strategic goals of each of the major powers of the Second World War changed substantially over the course of the conflict. Often these differences were heavily affected by events on the battlefield or shifting political realities. Many of the goals were driven directly by angst over the Treaty of Versailles but often also included ideas from the 19th Century. Altogether, several countries tended to force action by the remainder, still clinging to the hope of peace or containing the conflict.<br />
[[File:The_German_occupation_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia.gif|thumbnail|275px|German occupation of Prague, March 15, 1939]] <br />
The most belligerent powers, including Germany, Italy, Japan, and the Soviet Union, often had the most radical and far-reaching plans. These nations each had different grievances due to the path of colonialism and the First World War. Each used the fears and weaknesses of the other powers of Europe and Asia in order to take advantage for their own purposes. Germany sought domination of the European continent and large areas for settlement in Eurasia. Japan sought the removal of colonial powers and the establishment of an alliance of East Asian powers under its umbrella. Italy looked to re-establish the Roman Empire while Russia sought to reverse the humiliation of the end of the First World War and foreign intervention in the Russian Civil War of 1917-1920. The end of the conflict saw a dramatic reshaping of the continent, with many of the initial goals and grievances that started the conflict become irrelevant in the face of massive changes.<br />
<br />
==Germany==<br />
<br />
Perhaps no power's war goals have been so thoroughly researched than that of Nazi Germany. Before his National Socialist Party came to power in 1933, Adolf Hitler wrote his political manifesto, Mein Kampf (My Struggle), which became a bestseller in the 1920s and 1930s. Hitler laid out a revised 19th Century idea of Lebensraum, or "living space." Germany's population was the second-largest in Europe and expanding. The Nazis sought to expand into Eastern Europe to create a series of colonies around a Greater Germany. Nazi racial ideology believed that the Slavic, Roma, and Jewish populations of Eastern Europe were all inferior to the fair skinned Aryan Germanic races. Many of these racist policies were combined with Germany's belligerent stance and blaming the country's Jewish population for the loss of World War I, the infamous "stab in the back" theory.<br />
<br />
Germany sought to reverse the terms of Versailles. Many, including the annexation of Austria and remilitarization had been accomplished by the start of the war in September 1939. Hitler demanded that France be humiliated due to its role in the First World War. When France surrendered to Germany Hitler forced the French delegation to sign the peace terms in the same railway car that Germany signed the armistice in 1918. Germany also extended its domination into Scandinavia, the Balkans, and Eastern Europe. Many of the Eastern European states were forced into satellite status around Germany. Resources of the continent, including allied states, neutral countries, and occupied territory were all funneled towards Germany's war effort. However, up until late in the war the Nazi regime would attempt to restrict rationing, remembering the heavy toll on the civilian population in World War I. Late in the conflict the German government instituted a total war stance bringing the entire population and industry into desperate measures to win the war. <ref>Overy, R.J., ''War and Economy of the Third Reich''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Page 266-268.</ref><br />
<br />
The Nazi Party had a clear racial component to many of its goals before and during the war. As the conflict started against Russia in June 1941, the picture became more convoluted. The invasion of Russia with its large Jewish population led directly to the Holocaust. Furthermore, millions of prisoners or war and other Slavs were worked to death in German camps. While some in Eastern Europe welcomed German forces due to Stalin's oppression, their initial warm feelings were not reciprocated. Germany actively sought to exterminate or resettle the population of the Soviet Union and Poland to be replaced with German settlers. Millions of civilians and prisoners became slave labor for the Nazi regime. These German states would revolve around an enlarged Germany and largely based around agriculture. Some portions of the Soviet Union would become German resorts or key military bases, including the Crimean Peninsula. Towards the end of the war Germany hoped that the Western Allies could be convinced to work with Germany against the advancing Soviet armies. These hopes were all in vain as the Allies all demanded an unconditional surrender with no separate peace.<br />
<br />
==Italy==<br />
<br />
The rise of the Fascist Party under Benito Mussolini saw Italy attempt to become a major player in world geopolitics. Italy had been on the winning Allied side in the Great War but believed that it had been unfairly treated in the aftermath. The Peace of Versailles gave Italy small portions that it had been promised in secret talks with France and Britain during the war. Italy had also taken grave casualties during the war and its military had one of the worst reputations of the major powers. Mussolini attempted to build a modern, mobile military but instead Italy's army, navy, and air force all earned a poor reputation during the next war. However, Italy's political ambitions remained large as Mussolini attempted to remain on good terms with both Germany and the western allies. The Fascists also attempted to create a new Roman Empire across the Mediterranean, seizing Ethiopia in 1935-1936 and Albania in 1939.<br />
<br />
Italy's goals shifted as it aligned closely to Germany in the late 1930s. Italy backed Germany in a series of Eastern European crises in 1938 and 1939 but did not immediately join in the conflict. It was not until France was on the brink of collapse in June 1940 that Italy entered conflict with the Allies. President Roosevelt called Mussolini's calculated maneuver a "stab in the back." Still, Italy's goals were larger than its capabilities. Italy sought to regain territories given to France in the 1850s in exchange for help with Italian unification. Even with France on the verge of total defeat, Italian troops fighting the French along their shared mountainous border suffered a series of defeat. Italy gained just tiny portions of French territory before the armistice of June 22nd. When Italy asked for its full sought territory from Germany, it was stiffly rebuffed. Italy attempted to increase its profile in Africa, seizing French and British colonies in the Horn of Africa in the chaos of 1940. However, the Allies swiftly retook this territory, as well as Ethiopia and Eritrea from Italy. Italian efforts to push to the Suez Canal in Egypt from the Italian colony Libya were largely repelled by British forces. Italy desired a string of colonies along the Adriatic coast in Yugoslavia and to take former French colonies in North Africa. It was in this vein, jealous of Hitler's successes in Poland and France, that Mussolini ordered the invasion of Greece in October 1940. This invasion backfired spectacularly with Greece launching a counter-offensive and occupying a large segment of Albania. Germany had to bail out Italian forces in April 1941. In a show of exasperation, Italian troops were forbidden by the Germans from occupying Athens. In an effort to placate Germany, Mussolini directed 300,000 Italian troops to the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union, where their forces fared poorly.<ref>Kallis, Aritstotle, ''Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922-1945''. London: Routledge Press, 2000. Page 115.</ref><br />
<br />
==Japan==<br />
<br />
Like Italy, Japan had been a member of the victorious Allied Powers in the First World War. Unlike Italy, Japan faced relatively few casualties and seized a series of former German colonies However, deepening economic crises caused by the Great Depression and increasing military control of the country left Japan increasingly militaristic and belligerent. Japan had been an aggressive imperial power well before World War I, winning victories against China and Russia in the 1890s and 1910s, respectively, as well as occupying Taiwan in 1895 Korea in 1910. This continued as Japan sought increasing influence in an increasingly fractious China. Japan established a puppet regime in resource-rich Manchuria in 1932 and fought a particularly bloody war with China starting in 1937. Japan also fought and lost a series of border skirmishes with the Soviet Union that ended in August 1939.<br />
<br />
Japan had several key war aims once the Second World War began. Its troops were largely mired in various fronts in China as Europe descended into chaos. The fall of France and the Netherlands coupled with Britain's isolation offered Japan a new opportunity. Japan was able to align itself with independent Siam after a brief invasion while also coercing Vichy France into giving up its colony in Indochina. The Netherlands' colonies, the Dutch East Indies (today's Indonesia), were oil-rich, desperately needed for the war effort. Japan hoped to organize the nations of East Asia, including a potential ally in a liberated India, into the Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere under Japanese domination. Japan's far reaching imperial plans put it in direct conflict with the other major Pacific powers, the United States and Britain, which Japan would attack in December 1941. While Japan was able to win a series of rapid victories across Asia in the early part of the war, the rapid mobilization of the United States and the country's massive resources proved to be far too much for Japan to handle. Japan faced a series of defeats across the Pacific before the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. <ref>Mimura, Janis. Planning for Empire: Reform Bureaucrats and the Japanese Wartime State. Cornell: Cornell Press, 2011. Pages 195-111.</ref><br />
<br />
==Soviet Union==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union entered the World War II era shackled to its past. Not only had the country suffered millions of casualties from the Great War and Russian Civil War, up until Stalin's Five Year Plans it had been substantially behind the Western powers economically-- Stalin had said that Russia was 100 years behind industrially. It had also faced humiliation in the aftermath of the First World War, having given up much of Russia's former territories in Eastern Europe. The Allied Powers had also intervened on behalf of White forces in the Russian Civil War. Russia joined the League of Nations and attempted a rapprochement with the Western powers cut short by Germany's expansionism. Instead, in August 1939 Soviet dictator Josef Stalin signed a pact with Nazi Germany.<br />
<br />
Stalin's goals in the early days of World War II were similar to those at the end: to build a buffer for the Soviet Union. In late 1939 and 1940 Stalin invaded or seized part or all of all of Russia's European neighbors, Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, seeking to regain territory lost in World War I. Stalin paid a heavy price for this deal, allowing Hitler further influence in Eastern Europe and sending Germany important resources including grain and oil. Germany's invasion of June 22, 1941 proved to be a turning point for Stalin, breaking the fragile peace in Eastern Europe and placing even more distrust in Stalin. As the Soviets turned the tide against Germany in 1943 Stalin utilized this experience to force Communism across Eastern Europe, at any cost. As Soviet soldiers poured into Eastern Europe in 1944 and 1945 the Soviets established a series of puppet regime while eliminating the leaders of non-Communist factions. In 1945, Soviet troops occupied almost all of Eastern Europe and Stalin consolidated this position to create a series of buffer states that would become the Warsaw Pact after the war. Stalin sought to completely demilitarize and deindustrialize Germany to prevent another invasion. The Allies rejected this idea, Stalin also engineered a massive resettlement of millions of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and other parts of Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union had suffered massively from the conflict, with much of the country's industry destroyed and approximately 20 million killed in the war. The massive toll on Russia helped shape the country's demands at the war's close. Stalin also armed and funded Communist groups across the Europe and Asia, becoming indirectly involved in civil wars in Greece and China. The Western Allies exited the Second World War with a large and deepening distrust of Stalin, who at the time commanded the largest army in the world. <ref>Roberts, Geoffrey, Stalin's Wars. Yale: Yale University Press, 2006. Pages 121-133.</ref><br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
As the United States entered into the war, the major goals of the belligerent powers shifted. Germany, Italy, and Japan would each lose the war, with Italy knocked out of the war in 1943 and Germany and Japan in 1945. Each of these powers' dreams of empire were replaced with reconstruction of their shattered nation. Germany faced separation between occupying allies then formed into capitalist West and Communist East Germany. The U.S. and U.K. sought stability and self-determination towards the end of the war with the United States taking the lead. Across Western Europe liberated countries established democratic forms of government and free market systems. The Western Allies desperately feared that the issues surrounding the end of the war could lead to a Third World War or the spread of Communism. Seeking to learn after the mistakes of Versailles massive aid was established across Europe. Presidents Roosevelt and Truman sought to tamp down potential grievances and allowed Germany, Italy, and Japan to enter easily into the postwar international community.<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]][[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_were_the_goals_of_the_Axis_powers_and_the_Soviet_Union_during_World_War_Two&diff=1880What were the goals of the Axis powers and the Soviet Union during World War Two2016-05-19T02:03:53Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:The_German_occupation_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia.gif|thumbnail|275px|German occupation of Prague, March 15, 1939]] <br />
The strategic goals of each of the major powers of the Second World War changed substantially over the course of the conflict. Often these differences were heavily affected by events on the battlefield or shifting political realities. Many of the goals were driven directly by angst over the Treaty of Versailles but often also included ideas from the 19th Century. Altogether, several countries tended to force action by the remainder, still clinging to the hope of peace or containing the conflict.<br />
<br />
The most belligerent powers, including Germany, Italy, Japan, and the Soviet Union, often had the most radical and far-reaching plans. These nations each had different grievances due to the path of colonialism and the First World War. Each used the fears and weaknesses of the other powers of Europe and Asia in order to take advantage for their own purposes. Germany sought domination of the European continent and large areas for settlement in Eurasia. Japan sought the removal of colonial powers and the establishment of an alliance of East Asian powers under its umbrella. Italy looked to re-establish the Roman Empire while Russia sought to reverse the humiliation of the end of the First World War and foreign intervention in the Russian Civil War of 1917-1920. The end of the conflict saw a dramatic reshaping of the continent, with many of the initial goals and grievances that started the conflict become irrelevant in the face of massive changes.<br />
<br />
==Germany==<br />
<br />
Perhaps no power's war goals have been so thoroughly researched than that of Nazi Germany. Before his National Socialist Party came to power in 1933, Adolf Hitler wrote his political manifesto, Mein Kampf (My Struggle), which became a bestseller in the 1920s and 1930s. Hitler laid out a revised 19th Century idea of Lebensraum, or "living space." Germany's population was the second-largest in Europe and expanding. The Nazis sought to expand into Eastern Europe to create a series of colonies around a Greater Germany. Nazi racial ideology believed that the Slavic, Roma, and Jewish populations of Eastern Europe were all inferior to the fair skinned Aryan Germanic races. Many of these racist policies were combined with Germany's belligerent stance and blaming the country's Jewish population for the loss of World War I, the infamous "stab in the back" theory.<br />
<br />
Germany sought to reverse the terms of Versailles. Many, including the annexation of Austria and remilitarization had been accomplished by the start of the war in September 1939. Hitler demanded that France be humiliated due to its role in the First World War. When France surrendered to Germany Hitler forced the French delegation to sign the peace terms in the same railway car that Germany signed the armistice in 1918. Germany also extended its domination into Scandinavia, the Balkans, and Eastern Europe. Many of the Eastern European states were forced into satellite status around Germany. Resources of the continent, including allied states, neutral countries, and occupied territory were all funneled towards Germany's war effort. However, up until late in the war the Nazi regime would attempt to restrict rationing, remembering the heavy toll on the civilian population in World War I. Late in the conflict the German government instituted a total war stance bringing the entire population and industry into desperate measures to win the war. <ref>Overy, R.J., ''War and Economy of the Third Reich''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Page 266-268.</ref><br />
<br />
The Nazi Party had a clear racial component to many of its goals before and during the war. As the conflict started against Russia in June 1941, the picture became more convoluted. The invasion of Russia with its large Jewish population led directly to the Holocaust. Furthermore, millions of prisoners or war and other Slavs were worked to death in German camps. While some in Eastern Europe welcomed German forces due to Stalin's oppression, their initial warm feelings were not reciprocated. Germany actively sought to exterminate or resettle the population of the Soviet Union and Poland to be replaced with German settlers. Millions of civilians and prisoners became slave labor for the Nazi regime. These German states would revolve around an enlarged Germany and largely based around agriculture. Some portions of the Soviet Union would become German resorts or key military bases, including the Crimean Peninsula. Towards the end of the war Germany hoped that the Western Allies could be convinced to work with Germany against the advancing Soviet armies. These hopes were all in vain as the Allies all demanded an unconditional surrender with no separate peace.<br />
<br />
==Italy==<br />
<br />
The rise of the Fascist Party under Benito Mussolini saw Italy attempt to become a major player in world geopolitics. Italy had been on the winning Allied side in the Great War but believed that it had been unfairly treated in the aftermath. The Peace of Versailles gave Italy small portions that it had been promised in secret talks with France and Britain during the war. Italy had also taken grave casualties during the war and its military had one of the worst reputations of the major powers. Mussolini attempted to build a modern, mobile military but instead Italy's army, navy, and air force all earned a poor reputation during the next war. However, Italy's political ambitions remained large as Mussolini attempted to remain on good terms with both Germany and the western allies. The Fascists also attempted to create a new Roman Empire across the Mediterranean, seizing Ethiopia in 1935-1936 and Albania in 1939.<br />
<br />
Italy's goals shifted as it aligned closely to Germany in the late 1930s. Italy backed Germany in a series of Eastern European crises in 1938 and 1939 but did not immediately join in the conflict. It was not until France was on the brink of collapse in June 1940 that Italy entered conflict with the Allies. President Roosevelt called Mussolini's calculated maneuver a "stab in the back." Still, Italy's goals were larger than its capabilities. Italy sought to regain territories given to France in the 1850s in exchange for help with Italian unification. Even with France on the verge of total defeat, Italian troops fighting the French along their shared mountainous border suffered a series of defeat. Italy gained just tiny portions of French territory before the armistice of June 22nd. When Italy asked for its full sought territory from Germany, it was stiffly rebuffed. Italy attempted to increase its profile in Africa, seizing French and British colonies in the Horn of Africa in the chaos of 1940. However, the Allies swiftly retook this territory, as well as Ethiopia and Eritrea from Italy. Italian efforts to push to the Suez Canal in Egypt from the Italian colony Libya were largely repelled by British forces. Italy desired a string of colonies along the Adriatic coast in Yugoslavia and to take former French colonies in North Africa. It was in this vein, jealous of Hitler's successes in Poland and France, that Mussolini ordered the invasion of Greece in October 1940. This invasion backfired spectacularly with Greece launching a counter-offensive and occupying a large segment of Albania. Germany had to bail out Italian forces in April 1941. In a show of exasperation, Italian troops were forbidden by the Germans from occupying Athens. In an effort to placate Germany, Mussolini directed 300,000 Italian troops to the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union, where their forces fared poorly.<ref>Kallis, Aritstotle, ''Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922-1945''. London: Routledge Press, 2000. Page 115.</ref><br />
<br />
==Japan==<br />
<br />
Like Italy, Japan had been a member of the victorious Allied Powers in the First World War. Unlike Italy, Japan faced relatively few casualties and seized a series of former German colonies However, deepening economic crises caused by the Great Depression and increasing military control of the country left Japan increasingly militaristic and belligerent. Japan had been an aggressive imperial power well before World War I, winning victories against China and Russia in the 1890s and 1910s, respectively, as well as occupying Taiwan in 1895 Korea in 1910. This continued as Japan sought increasing influence in an increasingly fractious China. Japan established a puppet regime in resource-rich Manchuria in 1932 and fought a particularly bloody war with China starting in 1937. Japan also fought and lost a series of border skirmishes with the Soviet Union that ended in August 1939.<br />
<br />
Japan had several key war aims once the Second World War began. Its troops were largely mired in various fronts in China as Europe descended into chaos. The fall of France and the Netherlands coupled with Britain's isolation offered Japan a new opportunity. Japan was able to align itself with independent Siam after a brief invasion while also coercing Vichy France into giving up its colony in Indochina. The Netherlands' colonies, the Dutch East Indies (today's Indonesia), were oil-rich, desperately needed for the war effort. Japan hoped to organize the nations of East Asia, including a potential ally in a liberated India, into the Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere under Japanese domination. Japan's far reaching imperial plans put it in direct conflict with the other major Pacific powers, the United States and Britain, which Japan would attack in December 1941. While Japan was able to win a series of rapid victories across Asia in the early part of the war, the rapid mobilization of the United States and the country's massive resources proved to be far too much for Japan to handle. Japan faced a series of defeats across the Pacific before the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. <ref>Mimura, Janis. Planning for Empire: Reform Bureaucrats and the Japanese Wartime State. Cornell: Cornell Press, 2011. Pages 195-111.</ref><br />
<br />
==Soviet Union==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union entered the World War II era shackled to its past. Not only had the country suffered millions of casualties from the Great War and Russian Civil War, up until Stalin's Five Year Plans it had been substantially behind the Western powers economically-- Stalin had said that Russia was 100 years behind industrially. It had also faced humiliation in the aftermath of the First World War, having given up much of Russia's former territories in Eastern Europe. The Allied Powers had also intervened on behalf of White forces in the Russian Civil War. Russia joined the League of Nations and attempted a rapprochement with the Western powers cut short by Germany's expansionism. Instead, in August 1939 Soviet dictator Josef Stalin signed a pact with Nazi Germany.<br />
<br />
Stalin's goals in the early days of World War II were similar to those at the end: to build a buffer for the Soviet Union. In late 1939 and 1940 Stalin invaded or seized part or all of all of Russia's European neighbors, Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, seeking to regain territory lost in World War I. Stalin paid a heavy price for this deal, allowing Hitler further influence in Eastern Europe and sending Germany important resources including grain and oil. Germany's invasion of June 22, 1941 proved to be a turning point for Stalin, breaking the fragile peace in Eastern Europe and placing even more distrust in Stalin. As the Soviets turned the tide against Germany in 1943 Stalin utilized this experience to force Communism across Eastern Europe, at any cost. As Soviet soldiers poured into Eastern Europe in 1944 and 1945 the Soviets established a series of puppet regime while eliminating the leaders of non-Communist factions. In 1945, Soviet troops occupied almost all of Eastern Europe and Stalin consolidated this position to create a series of buffer states that would become the Warsaw Pact after the war. Stalin sought to completely demilitarize and deindustrialize Germany to prevent another invasion. The Allies rejected this idea, Stalin also engineered a massive resettlement of millions of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and other parts of Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union had suffered massively from the conflict, with much of the country's industry destroyed and approximately 20 million killed in the war. The massive toll on Russia helped shape the country's demands at the war's close. Stalin also armed and funded Communist groups across the Europe and Asia, becoming indirectly involved in civil wars in Greece and China. The Western Allies exited the Second World War with a large and deepening distrust of Stalin, who at the time commanded the largest army in the world. <ref>Roberts, Geoffrey, Stalin's Wars. Yale: Yale University Press, 2006. Pages 121-133.</ref><br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
As the United States entered into the war, the major goals of the belligerent powers shifted. Germany, Italy, and Japan would each lose the war, with Italy knocked out of the war in 1943 and Germany and Japan in 1945. Each of these powers' dreams of empire were replaced with reconstruction of their shattered nation. Germany faced separation between occupying allies then formed into capitalist West and Communist East Germany. The U.S. and U.K. sought stability and self-determination towards the end of the war with the United States taking the lead. Across Western Europe liberated countries established democratic forms of government and free market systems. The Western Allies desperately feared that the issues surrounding the end of the war could lead to a Third World War or the spread of Communism. Seeking to learn after the mistakes of Versailles massive aid was established across Europe. Presidents Roosevelt and Truman sought to tamp down potential grievances and allowed Germany, Italy, and Japan to enter easily into the postwar international community.<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]][[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_were_the_goals_of_the_Axis_powers_and_the_Soviet_Union_during_World_War_Two&diff=1879What were the goals of the Axis powers and the Soviet Union during World War Two2016-05-19T02:03:31Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[The_German_occupation_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia.gif|thumbnail|275px|German occupation of Prague, March 15, 1939]] <br />
The strategic goals of each of the major powers of the Second World War changed substantially over the course of the conflict. Often these differences were heavily affected by events on the battlefield or shifting political realities. Many of the goals were driven directly by angst over the Treaty of Versailles but often also included ideas from the 19th Century. Altogether, several countries tended to force action by the remainder, still clinging to the hope of peace or containing the conflict.<br />
<br />
The most belligerent powers, including Germany, Italy, Japan, and the Soviet Union, often had the most radical and far-reaching plans. These nations each had different grievances due to the path of colonialism and the First World War. Each used the fears and weaknesses of the other powers of Europe and Asia in order to take advantage for their own purposes. Germany sought domination of the European continent and large areas for settlement in Eurasia. Japan sought the removal of colonial powers and the establishment of an alliance of East Asian powers under its umbrella. Italy looked to re-establish the Roman Empire while Russia sought to reverse the humiliation of the end of the First World War and foreign intervention in the Russian Civil War of 1917-1920. The end of the conflict saw a dramatic reshaping of the continent, with many of the initial goals and grievances that started the conflict become irrelevant in the face of massive changes.<br />
<br />
==Germany==<br />
<br />
Perhaps no power's war goals have been so thoroughly researched than that of Nazi Germany. Before his National Socialist Party came to power in 1933, Adolf Hitler wrote his political manifesto, Mein Kampf (My Struggle), which became a bestseller in the 1920s and 1930s. Hitler laid out a revised 19th Century idea of Lebensraum, or "living space." Germany's population was the second-largest in Europe and expanding. The Nazis sought to expand into Eastern Europe to create a series of colonies around a Greater Germany. Nazi racial ideology believed that the Slavic, Roma, and Jewish populations of Eastern Europe were all inferior to the fair skinned Aryan Germanic races. Many of these racist policies were combined with Germany's belligerent stance and blaming the country's Jewish population for the loss of World War I, the infamous "stab in the back" theory.<br />
<br />
Germany sought to reverse the terms of Versailles. Many, including the annexation of Austria and remilitarization had been accomplished by the start of the war in September 1939. Hitler demanded that France be humiliated due to its role in the First World War. When France surrendered to Germany Hitler forced the French delegation to sign the peace terms in the same railway car that Germany signed the armistice in 1918. Germany also extended its domination into Scandinavia, the Balkans, and Eastern Europe. Many of the Eastern European states were forced into satellite status around Germany. Resources of the continent, including allied states, neutral countries, and occupied territory were all funneled towards Germany's war effort. However, up until late in the war the Nazi regime would attempt to restrict rationing, remembering the heavy toll on the civilian population in World War I. Late in the conflict the German government instituted a total war stance bringing the entire population and industry into desperate measures to win the war. <ref>Overy, R.J., ''War and Economy of the Third Reich''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Page 266-268.</ref><br />
<br />
The Nazi Party had a clear racial component to many of its goals before and during the war. As the conflict started against Russia in June 1941, the picture became more convoluted. The invasion of Russia with its large Jewish population led directly to the Holocaust. Furthermore, millions of prisoners or war and other Slavs were worked to death in German camps. While some in Eastern Europe welcomed German forces due to Stalin's oppression, their initial warm feelings were not reciprocated. Germany actively sought to exterminate or resettle the population of the Soviet Union and Poland to be replaced with German settlers. Millions of civilians and prisoners became slave labor for the Nazi regime. These German states would revolve around an enlarged Germany and largely based around agriculture. Some portions of the Soviet Union would become German resorts or key military bases, including the Crimean Peninsula. Towards the end of the war Germany hoped that the Western Allies could be convinced to work with Germany against the advancing Soviet armies. These hopes were all in vain as the Allies all demanded an unconditional surrender with no separate peace.<br />
<br />
==Italy==<br />
<br />
The rise of the Fascist Party under Benito Mussolini saw Italy attempt to become a major player in world geopolitics. Italy had been on the winning Allied side in the Great War but believed that it had been unfairly treated in the aftermath. The Peace of Versailles gave Italy small portions that it had been promised in secret talks with France and Britain during the war. Italy had also taken grave casualties during the war and its military had one of the worst reputations of the major powers. Mussolini attempted to build a modern, mobile military but instead Italy's army, navy, and air force all earned a poor reputation during the next war. However, Italy's political ambitions remained large as Mussolini attempted to remain on good terms with both Germany and the western allies. The Fascists also attempted to create a new Roman Empire across the Mediterranean, seizing Ethiopia in 1935-1936 and Albania in 1939.<br />
<br />
Italy's goals shifted as it aligned closely to Germany in the late 1930s. Italy backed Germany in a series of Eastern European crises in 1938 and 1939 but did not immediately join in the conflict. It was not until France was on the brink of collapse in June 1940 that Italy entered conflict with the Allies. President Roosevelt called Mussolini's calculated maneuver a "stab in the back." Still, Italy's goals were larger than its capabilities. Italy sought to regain territories given to France in the 1850s in exchange for help with Italian unification. Even with France on the verge of total defeat, Italian troops fighting the French along their shared mountainous border suffered a series of defeat. Italy gained just tiny portions of French territory before the armistice of June 22nd. When Italy asked for its full sought territory from Germany, it was stiffly rebuffed. Italy attempted to increase its profile in Africa, seizing French and British colonies in the Horn of Africa in the chaos of 1940. However, the Allies swiftly retook this territory, as well as Ethiopia and Eritrea from Italy. Italian efforts to push to the Suez Canal in Egypt from the Italian colony Libya were largely repelled by British forces. Italy desired a string of colonies along the Adriatic coast in Yugoslavia and to take former French colonies in North Africa. It was in this vein, jealous of Hitler's successes in Poland and France, that Mussolini ordered the invasion of Greece in October 1940. This invasion backfired spectacularly with Greece launching a counter-offensive and occupying a large segment of Albania. Germany had to bail out Italian forces in April 1941. In a show of exasperation, Italian troops were forbidden by the Germans from occupying Athens. In an effort to placate Germany, Mussolini directed 300,000 Italian troops to the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union, where their forces fared poorly.<ref>Kallis, Aritstotle, ''Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922-1945''. London: Routledge Press, 2000. Page 115.</ref><br />
<br />
==Japan==<br />
<br />
Like Italy, Japan had been a member of the victorious Allied Powers in the First World War. Unlike Italy, Japan faced relatively few casualties and seized a series of former German colonies However, deepening economic crises caused by the Great Depression and increasing military control of the country left Japan increasingly militaristic and belligerent. Japan had been an aggressive imperial power well before World War I, winning victories against China and Russia in the 1890s and 1910s, respectively, as well as occupying Taiwan in 1895 Korea in 1910. This continued as Japan sought increasing influence in an increasingly fractious China. Japan established a puppet regime in resource-rich Manchuria in 1932 and fought a particularly bloody war with China starting in 1937. Japan also fought and lost a series of border skirmishes with the Soviet Union that ended in August 1939.<br />
<br />
Japan had several key war aims once the Second World War began. Its troops were largely mired in various fronts in China as Europe descended into chaos. The fall of France and the Netherlands coupled with Britain's isolation offered Japan a new opportunity. Japan was able to align itself with independent Siam after a brief invasion while also coercing Vichy France into giving up its colony in Indochina. The Netherlands' colonies, the Dutch East Indies (today's Indonesia), were oil-rich, desperately needed for the war effort. Japan hoped to organize the nations of East Asia, including a potential ally in a liberated India, into the Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere under Japanese domination. Japan's far reaching imperial plans put it in direct conflict with the other major Pacific powers, the United States and Britain, which Japan would attack in December 1941. While Japan was able to win a series of rapid victories across Asia in the early part of the war, the rapid mobilization of the United States and the country's massive resources proved to be far too much for Japan to handle. Japan faced a series of defeats across the Pacific before the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. <ref>Mimura, Janis. Planning for Empire: Reform Bureaucrats and the Japanese Wartime State. Cornell: Cornell Press, 2011. Pages 195-111.</ref><br />
<br />
==Soviet Union==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union entered the World War II era shackled to its past. Not only had the country suffered millions of casualties from the Great War and Russian Civil War, up until Stalin's Five Year Plans it had been substantially behind the Western powers economically-- Stalin had said that Russia was 100 years behind industrially. It had also faced humiliation in the aftermath of the First World War, having given up much of Russia's former territories in Eastern Europe. The Allied Powers had also intervened on behalf of White forces in the Russian Civil War. Russia joined the League of Nations and attempted a rapprochement with the Western powers cut short by Germany's expansionism. Instead, in August 1939 Soviet dictator Josef Stalin signed a pact with Nazi Germany.<br />
<br />
Stalin's goals in the early days of World War II were similar to those at the end: to build a buffer for the Soviet Union. In late 1939 and 1940 Stalin invaded or seized part or all of all of Russia's European neighbors, Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, seeking to regain territory lost in World War I. Stalin paid a heavy price for this deal, allowing Hitler further influence in Eastern Europe and sending Germany important resources including grain and oil. Germany's invasion of June 22, 1941 proved to be a turning point for Stalin, breaking the fragile peace in Eastern Europe and placing even more distrust in Stalin. As the Soviets turned the tide against Germany in 1943 Stalin utilized this experience to force Communism across Eastern Europe, at any cost. As Soviet soldiers poured into Eastern Europe in 1944 and 1945 the Soviets established a series of puppet regime while eliminating the leaders of non-Communist factions. In 1945, Soviet troops occupied almost all of Eastern Europe and Stalin consolidated this position to create a series of buffer states that would become the Warsaw Pact after the war. Stalin sought to completely demilitarize and deindustrialize Germany to prevent another invasion. The Allies rejected this idea, Stalin also engineered a massive resettlement of millions of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and other parts of Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union had suffered massively from the conflict, with much of the country's industry destroyed and approximately 20 million killed in the war. The massive toll on Russia helped shape the country's demands at the war's close. Stalin also armed and funded Communist groups across the Europe and Asia, becoming indirectly involved in civil wars in Greece and China. The Western Allies exited the Second World War with a large and deepening distrust of Stalin, who at the time commanded the largest army in the world. <ref>Roberts, Geoffrey, Stalin's Wars. Yale: Yale University Press, 2006. Pages 121-133.</ref><br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
As the United States entered into the war, the major goals of the belligerent powers shifted. Germany, Italy, and Japan would each lose the war, with Italy knocked out of the war in 1943 and Germany and Japan in 1945. Each of these powers' dreams of empire were replaced with reconstruction of their shattered nation. Germany faced separation between occupying allies then formed into capitalist West and Communist East Germany. The U.S. and U.K. sought stability and self-determination towards the end of the war with the United States taking the lead. Across Western Europe liberated countries established democratic forms of government and free market systems. The Western Allies desperately feared that the issues surrounding the end of the war could lead to a Third World War or the spread of Communism. Seeking to learn after the mistakes of Versailles massive aid was established across Europe. Presidents Roosevelt and Truman sought to tamp down potential grievances and allowed Germany, Italy, and Japan to enter easily into the postwar international community.<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]][[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:The_German_occupation_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia.gif&diff=1878File:The German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia.gif2016-05-19T02:01:55Z<p>TheMayor: German Occupation of Prague, 15 March 1939
By Unknown - Rozumět dějinám, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6248610</p>
<hr />
<div>German Occupation of Prague, 15 March 1939<br />
By Unknown - Rozumět dějinám, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6248610</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_were_the_goals_of_the_Axis_powers_and_the_Soviet_Union_during_World_War_Two&diff=1877What were the goals of the Axis powers and the Soviet Union during World War Two2016-05-19T01:56:41Z<p>TheMayor: Created page with "The strategic goals of each of the major powers of the Second World War changed substantially over the course of the conflict. Often these differences were heavily affected by..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The strategic goals of each of the major powers of the Second World War changed substantially over the course of the conflict. Often these differences were heavily affected by events on the battlefield or shifting political realities. Many of the goals were driven directly by angst over the Treaty of Versailles but often also included ideas from the 19th Century. Altogether, several countries tended to force action by the remainder, still clinging to the hope of peace or containing the conflict.<br />
<br />
The most belligerent powers, including Germany, Italy, Japan, and the Soviet Union, often had the most radical and far-reaching plans. These nations each had different grievances due to the path of colonialism and the First World War. Each used the fears and weaknesses of the other powers of Europe and Asia in order to take advantage for their own purposes. Germany sought domination of the European continent and large areas for settlement in Eurasia. Japan sought the removal of colonial powers and the establishment of an alliance of East Asian powers under its umbrella. Italy looked to re-establish the Roman Empire while Russia sought to reverse the humiliation of the end of the First World War and foreign intervention in the Russian Civil War of 1917-1920. The end of the conflict saw a dramatic reshaping of the continent, with many of the initial goals and grievances that started the conflict become irrelevant in the face of massive changes.<br />
<br />
==Germany==<br />
<br />
Perhaps no power's war goals have been so thoroughly researched than that of Nazi Germany. Before his National Socialist Party came to power in 1933, Adolf Hitler wrote his political manifesto, Mein Kampf (My Struggle), which became a bestseller in the 1920s and 1930s. Hitler laid out a revised 19th Century idea of Lebensraum, or "living space." Germany's population was the second-largest in Europe and expanding. The Nazis sought to expand into Eastern Europe to create a series of colonies around a Greater Germany. Nazi racial ideology believed that the Slavic, Roma, and Jewish populations of Eastern Europe were all inferior to the fair skinned Aryan Germanic races. Many of these racist policies were combined with Germany's belligerent stance and blaming the country's Jewish population for the loss of World War I, the infamous "stab in the back" theory.<br />
<br />
Germany sought to reverse the terms of Versailles. Many, including the annexation of Austria and remilitarization had been accomplished by the start of the war in September 1939. Hitler demanded that France be humiliated due to its role in the First World War. When France surrendered to Germany Hitler forced the French delegation to sign the peace terms in the same railway car that Germany signed the armistice in 1918. Germany also extended its domination into Scandinavia, the Balkans, and Eastern Europe. Many of the Eastern European states were forced into satellite status around Germany. Resources of the continent, including allied states, neutral countries, and occupied territory were all funneled towards Germany's war effort. However, up until late in the war the Nazi regime would attempt to restrict rationing, remembering the heavy toll on the civilian population in World War I. Late in the conflict the German government instituted a total war stance bringing the entire population and industry into desperate measures to win the war. <ref>Overy, R.J., ''War and Economy of the Third Reich''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Page 266-268.</ref><br />
<br />
The Nazi Party had a clear racial component to many of its goals before and during the war. As the conflict started against Russia in June 1941, the picture became more convoluted. The invasion of Russia with its large Jewish population led directly to the Holocaust. Furthermore, millions of prisoners or war and other Slavs were worked to death in German camps. While some in Eastern Europe welcomed German forces due to Stalin's oppression, their initial warm feelings were not reciprocated. Germany actively sought to exterminate or resettle the population of the Soviet Union and Poland to be replaced with German settlers. Millions of civilians and prisoners became slave labor for the Nazi regime. These German states would revolve around an enlarged Germany and largely based around agriculture. Some portions of the Soviet Union would become German resorts or key military bases, including the Crimean Peninsula. Towards the end of the war Germany hoped that the Western Allies could be convinced to work with Germany against the advancing Soviet armies. These hopes were all in vain as the Allies all demanded an unconditional surrender with no separate peace.<br />
<br />
==Italy==<br />
<br />
The rise of the Fascist Party under Benito Mussolini saw Italy attempt to become a major player in world geopolitics. Italy had been on the winning Allied side in the Great War but believed that it had been unfairly treated in the aftermath. The Peace of Versailles gave Italy small portions that it had been promised in secret talks with France and Britain during the war. Italy had also taken grave casualties during the war and its military had one of the worst reputations of the major powers. Mussolini attempted to build a modern, mobile military but instead Italy's army, navy, and air force all earned a poor reputation during the next war. However, Italy's political ambitions remained large as Mussolini attempted to remain on good terms with both Germany and the western allies. The Fascists also attempted to create a new Roman Empire across the Mediterranean, seizing Ethiopia in 1935-1936 and Albania in 1939.<br />
<br />
Italy's goals shifted as it aligned closely to Germany in the late 1930s. Italy backed Germany in a series of Eastern European crises in 1938 and 1939 but did not immediately join in the conflict. It was not until France was on the brink of collapse in June 1940 that Italy entered conflict with the Allies. President Roosevelt called Mussolini's calculated maneuver a "stab in the back." Still, Italy's goals were larger than its capabilities. Italy sought to regain territories given to France in the 1850s in exchange for help with Italian unification. Even with France on the verge of total defeat, Italian troops fighting the French along their shared mountainous border suffered a series of defeat. Italy gained just tiny portions of French territory before the armistice of June 22nd. When Italy asked for its full sought territory from Germany, it was stiffly rebuffed. Italy attempted to increase its profile in Africa, seizing French and British colonies in the Horn of Africa in the chaos of 1940. However, the Allies swiftly retook this territory, as well as Ethiopia and Eritrea from Italy. Italian efforts to push to the Suez Canal in Egypt from the Italian colony Libya were largely repelled by British forces. Italy desired a string of colonies along the Adriatic coast in Yugoslavia and to take former French colonies in North Africa. It was in this vein, jealous of Hitler's successes in Poland and France, that Mussolini ordered the invasion of Greece in October 1940. This invasion backfired spectacularly with Greece launching a counter-offensive and occupying a large segment of Albania. Germany had to bail out Italian forces in April 1941. In a show of exasperation, Italian troops were forbidden by the Germans from occupying Athens. In an effort to placate Germany, Mussolini directed 300,000 Italian troops to the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union, where their forces fared poorly.<ref>Kallis, Aritstotle, ''Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922-1945''. London: Routledge Press, 2000. Page 115.</ref><br />
<br />
==Japan==<br />
<br />
Like Italy, Japan had been a member of the victorious Allied Powers in the First World War. Unlike Italy, Japan faced relatively few casualties and seized a series of former German colonies However, deepening economic crises caused by the Great Depression and increasing military control of the country left Japan increasingly militaristic and belligerent. Japan had been an aggressive imperial power well before World War I, winning victories against China and Russia in the 1890s and 1910s, respectively, as well as occupying Taiwan in 1895 Korea in 1910. This continued as Japan sought increasing influence in an increasingly fractious China. Japan established a puppet regime in resource-rich Manchuria in 1932 and fought a particularly bloody war with China starting in 1937. Japan also fought and lost a series of border skirmishes with the Soviet Union that ended in August 1939.<br />
<br />
Japan had several key war aims once the Second World War began. Its troops were largely mired in various fronts in China as Europe descended into chaos. The fall of France and the Netherlands coupled with Britain's isolation offered Japan a new opportunity. Japan was able to align itself with independent Siam after a brief invasion while also coercing Vichy France into giving up its colony in Indochina. The Netherlands' colonies, the Dutch East Indies (today's Indonesia), were oil-rich, desperately needed for the war effort. Japan hoped to organize the nations of East Asia, including a potential ally in a liberated India, into the Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere under Japanese domination. Japan's far reaching imperial plans put it in direct conflict with the other major Pacific powers, the United States and Britain, which Japan would attack in December 1941. While Japan was able to win a series of rapid victories across Asia in the early part of the war, the rapid mobilization of the United States and the country's massive resources proved to be far too much for Japan to handle. Japan faced a series of defeats across the Pacific before the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. <ref>Mimura, Janis. Planning for Empire: Reform Bureaucrats and the Japanese Wartime State. Cornell: Cornell Press, 2011. Pages 195-111.</ref><br />
<br />
==Soviet Union==<br />
<br />
The Soviet Union entered the World War II era shackled to its past. Not only had the country suffered millions of casualties from the Great War and Russian Civil War, up until Stalin's Five Year Plans it had been substantially behind the Western powers economically-- Stalin had said that Russia was 100 years behind industrially. It had also faced humiliation in the aftermath of the First World War, having given up much of Russia's former territories in Eastern Europe. The Allied Powers had also intervened on behalf of White forces in the Russian Civil War. Russia joined the League of Nations and attempted a rapprochement with the Western powers cut short by Germany's expansionism. Instead, in August 1939 Soviet dictator Josef Stalin signed a pact with Nazi Germany.<br />
<br />
Stalin's goals in the early days of World War II were similar to those at the end: to build a buffer for the Soviet Union. In late 1939 and 1940 Stalin invaded or seized part or all of all of Russia's European neighbors, Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, seeking to regain territory lost in World War I. Stalin paid a heavy price for this deal, allowing Hitler further influence in Eastern Europe and sending Germany important resources including grain and oil. Germany's invasion of June 22, 1941 proved to be a turning point for Stalin, breaking the fragile peace in Eastern Europe and placing even more distrust in Stalin. As the Soviets turned the tide against Germany in 1943 Stalin utilized this experience to force Communism across Eastern Europe, at any cost. As Soviet soldiers poured into Eastern Europe in 1944 and 1945 the Soviets established a series of puppet regime while eliminating the leaders of non-Communist factions. In 1945, Soviet troops occupied almost all of Eastern Europe and Stalin consolidated this position to create a series of buffer states that would become the Warsaw Pact after the war. Stalin sought to completely demilitarize and deindustrialize Germany to prevent another invasion. The Allies rejected this idea, Stalin also engineered a massive resettlement of millions of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and other parts of Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union had suffered massively from the conflict, with much of the country's industry destroyed and approximately 20 million killed in the war. The massive toll on Russia helped shape the country's demands at the war's close. Stalin also armed and funded Communist groups across the Europe and Asia, becoming indirectly involved in civil wars in Greece and China. The Western Allies exited the Second World War with a large and deepening distrust of Stalin, who at the time commanded the largest army in the world. <ref>Roberts, Geoffrey, Stalin's Wars. Yale: Yale University Press, 2006. Pages 121-133.</ref><br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
As the United States entered into the war, the major goals of the belligerent powers shifted. Germany, Italy, and Japan would each lose the war, with Italy knocked out of the war in 1943 and Germany and Japan in 1945. Each of these powers' dreams of empire were replaced with reconstruction of their shattered nation. Germany faced separation between occupying allies then formed into capitalist West and Communist East Germany. The U.S. and U.K. sought stability and self-determination towards the end of the war with the United States taking the lead. Across Western Europe liberated countries established democratic forms of government and free market systems. The Western Allies desperately feared that the issues surrounding the end of the war could lead to a Third World War or the spread of Communism. Seeking to learn after the mistakes of Versailles massive aid was established across Europe. Presidents Roosevelt and Truman sought to tamp down potential grievances and allowed Germany, Italy, and Japan to enter easily into the postwar international community.<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]][[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_Edwin_Drake_create_the_World%27s_first_oil_well&diff=1800How did Edwin Drake create the World's first oil well2016-05-13T21:12:54Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Mediawiki:KindleOasis}}<br />
There was no one "first discover" of oil - at least that history was around to record. Oil was known in antiquity when it was used to heal wounds. But by the middle of the 19th century methods for collecting oil from the ground had not changed for thousands of years. It was either harvested in a pail or sopped up with rags and wrung out by hand over barrels.<ref>American Chemical Society, “The Development of the Pennsylvania Oil Industry,” 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
==The Need for Cheap Indoor Illuminants==<br />
<br />
The future of oil changed in 1846. Abraham Gessner, who was trained as a physician in England but spent his life in geological work in his native Canada instead, was performing public lectures in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. During one demonstration Gessner showed how oil distilled from bituminous coal could be used to light a lamp. He called the distillate "kerosene" and those in attendance that day were on hand for the birth of the oil refining industry.<ref>University of Toronto and Université Laval, ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography'', (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1959).</ref><br />
<br />
Indoor illuminants at the time relied on whale oil which was, of course, difficult and dangerous to obtain and expensive - $2.50 a gallon at a time when a good day's wage was less than one dollar.<ref> Yergin, Daniel, ''The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power'', (New York: Free Press, 1991).</ref> Kerosene burned smokily and smelled awful but tinkerers soon discovered that a lamp with a glass chimney solved both problems. Finding petroleum for these proliferating cheap "kerosene lamps" stoked the fire of the day's entrepreneurs.<br />
<br />
==Enter a Visionary==<br />
<br />
George Henry Bissell was not one of those obsessed with kerosene. Rather, in 1853 he was a 32-year old struggling lawyer when he saw samples of "rock oil" from western Pennsylvania on the campus of Dartmouth College in his hometown of Hanover, New Hampshire. When he saw how readily the inky black liquid burned Bissell immediately saw its potential as an illuminant and not as a medicinal salve. Furthermore, it became Bissell's plan to drill for the oil in a way that salt had been obtained for hundreds of years.<br />
<br />
Bissell commissioned a report from one of the leading scientists of the day, Benjamin Silliman, Jr., to verify the energy potential of rock oil and began making the rounds in New York City to convince investors in his scheme. There were not many takers in the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company. Bissell's partner James Townsend reported after one pitch that the naysayers chided him: "Oh, Townsend, oil coming out of the ground, pumping oil out of the earth as you pump water? Nonsense! You're crazy.”<ref>Giddens, Paul H, ''The Birth of the Oil Industry'', (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1938), p. 48.</ref><br />
<br />
==The Dream Comes Together==<br />
<br />
Bissell and Townsend trundled on, spewing their plans for most anyone who would listen. One who listened and was intrigued enough to buy a few shares in the enterprise was Edwin Drake, who lived in the same hotel as Townsend. Drake, it was decided, would be the man to helm the first drilling project. At thirty-eight years of age, he boasted no special training and no experience. He had worked for the railroad as a station clerk and a freight agent and a conductor but had been forced to retire due to infirmity.<ref>Dav, Urja, “Edwin Drake and the Oil Well Drill Pipe,” 2008.</ref> Drake's main qualifications as a drilling engineer were, one, that he was available and, two, his lifetime railroad pass enabled him to ride back and forth to Pennsylvania for free. That was no small consideration for the newly renamed Seneca Oil Company.<br />
<br />
Drake's train pulled into the flea speck town of Titusville, population 150, in the spring of 1858. Jonathan Titus was a surveyor with Samuel Kerr for the Holland Land Company in 1800 when the men bought up land and platted a townsite.<ref>Weber, David L., ''Images of America: Around Titusville'', (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Press, 1994).</ref> Lumber was the prime economic engine but the surrounding hillsides were quite nearly stripped bare by mid-century and when the timber was gone it was expected that Titusville would soon be as well.<br />
<br />
Bissell had taken to referring to Drake as "Colonel" in correspondence sent to Pennsylvania, although the closest Drake had ever come to the military was punching soldiers’ tickets on the train. In doing so Bissell hoped to provide Drake some agency among the workers in the hardscrabble backwoods and that authority indeed proved useful in recruiting fresh crews as "the Colonel" failed in one drilling attempt after another. The townsfolk took to calling the operation down on Oil Creek "Drake's Folly."<br />
<br />
==Perseverance, Redemption and Success==<br />
<br />
He tried a steam engine but the soft sand in the stream continually collapsed around his shaft. With each grim report dispatched to Bissell's office in New Haven, Connecticut the investors clenched the purse strings a little tighter. But what Edwin Drake lacked in technical expertise he more than made up for in the quintessential American trait - stick-to-itiveness. <br />
<br />
Drake overcame the obstacle of the collapsing oil seeps by driving an iron pipe down into the earth and drilling inside it - a technique that the modern petrochemical industry uses today. When he reached bedrock and still no oil was found Drake borrowed money from his friends to keep drilling when funds from Seneca Oil was slow to arrive. Finally, on August 27, 1859, at a depth of 69 feet, history's first oil well came in.<ref>American Chemical Society, ''The Development of the Pennsylvania Oil Industry,'' 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
The world had never seen anything like what happened next. Derricks sprouted along Oil Creek within days. The word "boomtown" was coined to describe the settlements that swelled to over 10,000 residents in weeks. Bissell sped towards Titusville and bought up every farm he could find for Seneca Oil. Within a year there were more than 75 wells producing oil in western Pennsylvania - enough crude to spark the construction of full-blown refineries. <br />
<br />
==Boom…then Bust==<br />
<br />
While certainly exciting, those initial wells were modest affairs by today's standards. The oil was still pumped out of the ground each time it was discovered. But 30 months after Drake's first well the world's first "gusher" came in, with oil literally exploding from inside the earth. Production soon spiked to over three million barrels a day from barely half a million barrels. The glut sent prices spiraling for $10 a barrel to 50 cents.<ref>Yergin, Daniel, ''The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power'', (New York: Free Press, 1991).</ref><br />
<br />
The crash ruined speculators, one of whom was Edwin Drake. George Bissell held on through the crisis and emerged a wealthy man when prices rebounded and new uses for petroleum were discovered. Drake also had never bothered to patent his oil drilling technique. He spent the last years of his life reduced to writing friends to beg for money. In 1873, as he lived out his final days in infirmity, the state of Pennsylvania eased his troubles by issuing him a small lifetime pension in recognition of his contributions to the development of Keystone State industry.<br />
<br />
As it turned out, Drake had been extremely lucky in choosing his drilling spot on a small island in Oil Creek. If he had sunk his iron pipe just a few feet to the left or to the right it would have required another 100 feet of perseverance and funding to strike oil. But the question of whether Edwin Drake had enough remaining of either does not need to be asked.<br />
<br />
While others around him were cashing in fortunes after his discovery on Oil Creek, Drake was more concerned with securing his legacy in some of his last writings: "I claim that I did invent the driving Pipe and drive it and without that they could not bore on bottom lands when the earth is full of water. And I claim to have bored the first well that ever was bored for the Petroleum in America and can show the well. If I had not done it, it would have not been done to this day.”<ref>Yergin, Daniel, ''The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power'', (New York: Free Press, 1991), p. 26.</ref><br />
<br />
=References=<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:United States History]] [[Category:History of Science and Technology]][[Category:Economic History]]</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=1799How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2016-05-13T21:01:21Z<p>TheMayor: /* Deliberations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:LLoyd's_News_Placard_announcing_Versailles_signing.jpg|thumbnail|175px|Lloyd's News reporting the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.]]<br />
{{MediaWiki:Kindleoasis}}<br />
The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought tremendous uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
<br />
==Deliberations==<br />
[[File:Versailles_1919.jpg|thumbnail|250px|Georges Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson at the Formal Signing of the Treaty.]]<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
<br />
Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
<br />
==Shortfalls==<br />
<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
<br />
President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. ''The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
<br />
However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
<br />
==German Reaction==<br />
<br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
[[File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Mass Demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles at the Reichstag in 1919.]] <br />
Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
<br />
Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. ''The Versailles Settleme (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
<br />
Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist, or Nazi, party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:Versailles_1919.jpg&diff=1798File:Versailles 1919.jpg2016-05-13T21:00:46Z<p>TheMayor: Clemenceau and Wilson at formal signing of Treaty of Versailles.
Public Domain Published in the US media on signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Originally published by Keystone View Company. http://www.nvcc.edu/home/cevans/Versailles/images/pa...</p>
<hr />
<div>Clemenceau and Wilson at formal signing of Treaty of Versailles.<br />
Public Domain Published in the US media on signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Originally published by Keystone View Company. http://www.nvcc.edu/home/cevans/Versailles/images/pages/Clemenceau_Wilson.html</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=1797How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2016-05-13T20:59:16Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:LLoyd's_News_Placard_announcing_Versailles_signing.jpg|thumbnail|175px|Lloyd's News reporting the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.]]<br />
{{MediaWiki:Kindleoasis}}<br />
The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought tremendous uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
<br />
==Deliberations==<br />
[[File:Versailles_1919.jpg|thumbnail|175px|Georges Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson at the Formal Signing of the Treaty.]]<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
<br />
Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
<br />
==Shortfalls==<br />
<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
<br />
President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. ''The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
<br />
However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
<br />
==German Reaction==<br />
<br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
[[File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Mass Demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles at the Reichstag in 1919.]] <br />
Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
<br />
Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. ''The Versailles Settleme (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
<br />
Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist, or Nazi, party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=1796How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2016-05-13T20:54:56Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:LLoyd's_News_Placard_announcing_Versailles_signing.jpg|thumbnail|175px|Lloyd's News reporting the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.]]<br />
{{MediaWiki:Kindleoasis}}<br />
The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought tremendous uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
<br />
==Deliberations==<br />
<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
<br />
Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
<br />
==Shortfalls==<br />
<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
<br />
President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. ''The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
<br />
However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
<br />
==German Reaction==<br />
<br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
[[File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Mass Demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles at the Reichstag in 1919.]] <br />
Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
<br />
Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. ''The Versailles Settleme (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
<br />
Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist, or Nazi, party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=1794How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2016-05-13T20:47:01Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:LLoyd's_News_Placard_announcing_Versailles_signing.jpg|thumbnail|175px|Lloyd's News reporting the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.]]<br />
{{mediawiki:banner1}}<br />
The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought tremendous uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
<br />
==Deliberations==<br />
<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
<br />
Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
<br />
==Shortfalls==<br />
<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
<br />
President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. ''The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
<br />
However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
<br />
==German Reaction==<br />
<br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
[[File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Mass Demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles at the Reichstag in 1919.]] <br />
Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
<br />
Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. ''The Versailles Settleme (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
<br />
Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist, or Nazi, party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=1793How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2016-05-13T20:46:26Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{mediawiki:banner1}}<br />
[[File:LLoyd's_News_Placard_announcing_Versailles_signing.jpg|thumbnail|175px|Lloyd's News reporting the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.]]<br />
The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought tremendous uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
<br />
==Deliberations==<br />
<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
<br />
Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
<br />
==Shortfalls==<br />
<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
<br />
President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. ''The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
<br />
However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
<br />
==German Reaction==<br />
<br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
[[File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Mass Demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles at the Reichstag in 1919.]] <br />
Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
<br />
Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. ''The Versailles Settleme (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
<br />
Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist, or Nazi, party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=1792How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2016-05-13T20:46:07Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{mediawiki:banner1}}<br />
[[File:LLoyd's_News_Placard_announcing_Versailles_signing.jpg|thumbnail|250px|Lloyd's News reporting the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.]]<br />
The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought tremendous uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
<br />
==Deliberations==<br />
<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
<br />
Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
<br />
==Shortfalls==<br />
<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
<br />
President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. ''The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
<br />
However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
<br />
==German Reaction==<br />
<br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
[[File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Mass Demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles at the Reichstag in 1919.]] <br />
Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
<br />
Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. ''The Versailles Settleme (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
<br />
Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist, or Nazi, party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:LLoyd%27s_News_Placard_announcing_Versailles_signing.jpg&diff=1791File:LLoyd's News Placard announcing Versailles signing.jpg2016-05-13T20:43:27Z<p>TheMayor: Public Domain
Placard announcing Versailles signing in Lloyd's News June 29, 1919</p>
<hr />
<div>Public Domain <br />
Placard announcing Versailles signing in Lloyd's News June 29, 1919</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=1790How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2016-05-13T20:40:13Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{mediawiki:banner1}}<br />
The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought tremendous uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
<br />
==Deliberations==<br />
<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
<br />
Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
<br />
==Shortfalls==<br />
<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
<br />
President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. ''The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
<br />
However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
<br />
==German Reaction==<br />
<br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
[[File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Mass Demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles at the Reichstag in 1919.]] <br />
Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
<br />
Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. ''The Versailles Settleme (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
<br />
Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist, or Nazi, party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg&diff=1789File:Mass demonstration in front of the Reichstag against the Treaty of Versailles.jpg2016-05-13T20:39:29Z<p>TheMayor: May 1919 demonstration against Treaty of Vers in front of Reichstag
By Bildarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz - http://www.europeana.eu/portal/full-doc.html?query=versailles+treaty+1919&start=27&startPage=25&uri=http://www.europeana.eu/resolve/record/039...</p>
<hr />
<div>May 1919 demonstration against Treaty of Vers in front of Reichstag<br />
By Bildarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz - http://www.europeana.eu/portal/full-doc.html?query=versailles+treaty+1919&start=27&startPage=25&uri=http://www.europeana.eu/resolve/record/03903/8AD81207A26E4805D890FEF626DBA6991696CF10&view=table&pageId=bd, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5309553</div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=1788How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2016-05-13T20:38:18Z<p>TheMayor: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{mediawiki:banner1}}<br />
The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought tremendous uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
<br />
==Deliberations==<br />
<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
<br />
Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
<br />
==Shortfalls==<br />
<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
<br />
President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. ''The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
<br />
However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
<br />
==German Reaction==<br />
<br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
[[File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg|thumbnail|175px|Mass Demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles at the Reichstag in 1919.]] <br />
Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. ''The Versailles Settleme (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
<br />
Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist, or Nazi, party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayorhttps://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=1787How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2016-05-13T20:33:19Z<p>TheMayor: Created page with "{{mediawiki:banner1}} The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed..."</p>
<hr />
<div>{{mediawiki:banner1}}<br />
The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought tremendous uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
<br />
==Deliberations==<br />
<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
<br />
Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
<br />
==Shortfalls==<br />
<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
<br />
President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Nazi Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. ''The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision'', (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
<br />
However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
<br />
==German Reaction==<br />
<br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
<br />
Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. ''The Versailles Settleme (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
<br />
Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist, or Nazi, party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:European History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact- Stalin’s greatest mistake?]]<br />
</div></div>TheMayor